3. Western Religions

The Life of Shari'ah: Society and Ethics

            "How should we live?  The Muslim answer is as simple and universal as the Jewish and Christian answer.  The Muslim should live as one who belongs to the ummah, the worldwide community of Muslims, following the guidance of the Shari'ah, the Law.

Social Structure of Islam

"The Universal Ummah.  The word ummah is difficult to translate.   It has elements of a community, a people, a nation, and a religion.  According to the Quran, originally all people were one ummah, but then they fell into variance (10:19).  Prophets were sent by God to the different ummahs.  The ummah of each prophet received true revelation from God and thus they were muslims insofar as they submitted to that revelation and lived according to it.  Most of these communities, however, forgot the true revelation and lapsed into unbelief and sin.
            "God gave to Muhammad, the final prophet, the mission of establishing a new ummah, which would be the social embodiment of God's design for all humankind and which eventually would reunite all humankind into one ummah.  The peoples of Arabia were divided into tribal loyalties, and this greatly hindered Muhammad's work in Mecca.  So the decisive moment in the creation of the ummah was the Hijra, the emigration to Medina, where for the first time there arose an ummah that was unified in worship and faith.  In making the Hijra, Muhammad and the Muslims were moving against their own kin in Mecca to an alien center outside;  faith-solidarity was now sharply pitted against blood-solidarity.  The Emigrants had to rely on the assistance of people outside their tribes, the Helpers of Medina.  The Constitution of Medina
clearly identified the new community as an ummah bound together by faith and submission to God and his prophet, showing that the bond of faith had replaced tribal loyalty.
            "In Medina, the political and social structure was totally Islamicized, and that set the pattern for the ummah.  There is no separation between the secular and the religious in Islam, between the political and the spiritual, between state and church.  The ummah is all-embracing, based on the foundation of the Quran and the Law drawn from the Quran.
            "As Islam expanded under the caliphs, a large territory came under the immediate jurisdiction of the ummah.  This is called the Dar al-Islam, the Abode of Islam, inside of which infidels could not be tolerated.  But the ummah is not limited to the area of the Dar al-Islam.  The ummah is universal, and all who submit to God and recognize the Prophet are equal in this brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam.  Equality and unity are of central importance.  No one Muslim, no matter in what position, has rights of precedence over another Muslim; all are equal before God.  In the days of Caliph 'Umar, the powerful governor of Egypt had a son who, annoyed by an Egyptian commoner in a horse racing context, struck him, saying, "Don't you know I am the son of the great man?"  And the governor imprisoned the commoner for a time.  But when he was
released, the commoner went to Medina and appealed to 'Umar.  'Umar recalled both the governor and his son, and after they confessed he ordered the commoner to beat them both.  'Umar spoke to the governor: "By what right do you tyrannize over men?  Have they not emerged from their mothers' wombs as free citizens?"  Although there may be differences of position or wealth, all Muslims are equal with respect to justice under God's law.
            "Since God's unity is the bedrock of Islamic belief, the ummah also is an expression of that unity.  Ideally the ummah demonstrates the fundamental unity of the human race.  The Quran states, "O mankind, We have created you male and female, and appointed you races and tribes, that you may know one another" (49:13).  The rituals of Islam provide dramatic experience of the oneness of the whole Islamic community.  Five times a day Muslims everywhere on earth face the same center of the world and say the same prayers.  And in the pilgrimage to Mecca, Muslims of both genders and of all races, nations, and language groups come together as one, representing the whole human race.  The ummah is not called out to be a special people separate from the whole human race; it is the ideal form that all humankind is designed to be.

"Social Structure and Leadership.  The ummah is universal and worldwide.  But it takes concrete form in the various Islamic nations and especially in the communities of Muslims all over who group themselves together as mosque assemblies.  Although Muhammad and the first four caliphs were seen as leaders of the one ummah, down through the centuries Islam has linked together with a variety of nations and empires, so that today there is no one worldwide unified ruling authority.  Muslims today live in a variety of political structures, from Islamic states like Pakistan and Iran to secular states like Turkey; and a significant number of Muslims live in small Muslim communities scattered throughout the Western nations.  Yet there is a remarkable unity of Islamic belief and practice throughout the worldwide ummah.  Most Muslims consider themselves to be Sunnites, following one of the four orthodox schools of law codified by the Islamic scholars in the generations following the time of Muhammad.  The Shi'ites are a significant minority, making up about 15 percent of the world population of Muslims and following their own schools of law.  Yet for the most part Sunnites and Shi'ites recognize each other as equal and true practitioners of the Muslim way.
            "There is no clergy or priesthood in the ummah.  The ruling family of Saudi Arabia has assumed responsibility for the the holy paces there, exercising some control over who is considered to be a Muslim in terms of who is allowed to enter Mecca on the pilgrimage.  But there is no person or body who has authority over the whole ummah.  Since Islam is a path of knowledge, the most respected leaders are the scholars, the 'ulama (sing., 'alim), who study the Quran and the Hadith and are responsible for determining the application of the law.  Among the 'ulama the mufti is recognized as a legal expert who can be consulted for a formal legal opinion on a particular question pertaining to, for example, marriage, divorce, or inheritance.  Another important figure is the qadi, the religious judge who is appointed by the political leader and carries out justice in matters of religious law.  The Shi'ite religious scholars in  Iran, called mullas, are granted an extraordinary high level of respect and authority in all matters pertaining to religious law--which, in an "On the local level, most mosque communities contract with a learned Muslim to be the imam, the spiritual leader of worship and teaching in the mosque.  Any Muslim has the right to lead prayers and to teach others.  But it is helpful if the mosque has a recognized scholar as imam, to teach, preach at the Friday prayers, and give spiritual guidance to the people in a variety of matters.

"Women in Religious Leadership.  Muslim tradition has been quite strict in separating women from men in public religious activities, so religious leadership has almost exclusively been reserved for men. Although women have equality with men, according to the Quran, the roles of women are understood to be quite different. Laws and cultural customs about seclusion have contributed to keeping women from public activities; instead, their roles have focused overwhelmingly on the family and the home and on the religious training of children.  Women do lead prayers when a group of women prays together.
            "There of course have been strong, well-known women religious leaders in Muslim history, starting with Khadijah, Muhammad's strong and resourceful wife.  His later wives also were highly respected and talented.  Hafsah, daughter of 'Umar, was literature and contributed to the collection of the revelations given to Muhammad.  And his beloved young wife 'Aisha was a strong leader, not afraid to enter into the conflicts that developed after Muhammad's death; it was she who supplied many of the hadiths (reports) about Muhammad's sayings and deeds.  Muhammad's daughter Fatima, married to his cousin 'Ali and mother of his grandsons, was highly revered as a leader in women's spirituality.  And there have been numerous women spiritual leaders, saints, and mystics--such as Rabi'ah, mentioned earlier.
            "In modern times there are many examples of Muslim women who exercise leadership in a variety of important roles, as political leaders (even heads of state), writers, teachers, scholars, doctors, engineers, and much more.  While women have been restricted from public religious leadership positions, they exert much influence in the Muslim community.  Some leading Muslim women today are quite westernized.  But many other modern women are turning more toward traditional Islamic values to reaffirm their identity as Muslim women.  They find vitality not in Western patters of liberation but within the framework of Muslim tradition.  Taking full advantage of educational and professional opportunities, yet choosing to remain within traditional Islamic patterns of society, these women are attempting to express a modern vision of Islamic womanhood distinct from Western models.

The Way of Shari'ah

            "How should we live?  Christianity turned away from the Jewish idea that God's law directly governs and guides all conduct; rather, faith in Christ means that love is the motivating power, following the law in freedom.  In many ways the Muslim tradition rejects the Christian view and returns closely to the Jewish view of Torah.  The Shari'ah is divinely given, complete and perfect in all its details.  The highest human good is to follow the path outlined in the law, omitting no details no matter how small.  Humans were created to fulfill the divine design, and that design finds its expression in the Shari'ah.

"Basic Principles of the Shari'ah.   The Quran, of course, comes from God, revealed through the Prophet Muhammad.  But where does the Shari'ah, the massive religious legislation that governs all aspects of Muslim life, come from?  This also comes from God, Muslims say, because it is drawn from the Holy Book.  Since law is so important to Muslims, the great Islamic thinkers spent their creative energies elucidating the legal structure of Islam, while Christian thinkers were spending their time on theological issues.
            "There are actually two basic sources for the Shari'ah: the Quran and the Hadith (the collection of the sayings and doings of the Prophet Muhammad).  Many duties of human life find direct, explicit expression in the Quran.   But, although the Quran is God's perfect revelation, it is not large enough to state explicitly everything that humans should do in life in all situations.  What is implicit in the Quran , or unclear in our limited understanding, is made explicit in the Hadith.  Muhammad's close companions reported what he said and did  in all circumstances, and these reports convey the example (sunnah) of Muhammad as the second source of law.  To distinguish the reliable reports from those that are not so reliable, Muslim scholars elaborated a scientific, scholarly method of scrutinizing the "chain" (isnad) of people who passed on the report.  If the chain can be linked securely back to a close companion the Prophet, it is reliable and can be used as a basis for Shari'ah.
            "But even the Hadith does not specify what is to be done in all situations.  As new situations arose, the law had to be searched and interpreted to meet the new needs.  So Muslim scholars cultivated the method of "analogy" (qiyas), likening the new situation to one mentioned in the Quran or the Hadith and thus drawing legal conclusions.  Analogy is a very creative undertaking, so finally it has to be checked, verified, and codified by the consensus (ijma') of the recognized legal scholars--for Muhammad had said that his people will never agree on an error.  In this way, from the Quran and the hadith, by means of analogy and consensus, the whole body of Islamic law was formed and put in place as the divine pattern for human life.
            "We should not let the process of developing the Shari'ah obscure the fundamental truth that the Shari'ah represents God's total design for life.  The Shari'ah has been revealed by the same God who made the whole world for the sake of humans.  The guidance supplied in the law is therefore a regulation of life in the best interest of humans, showing us the best way to live to fulfill the highest potential.  God has not given anything that is useless or unnecessary; and human should use all their faculties, powers, and resources in such a way that they can reap the highest benefits from them.  Abul A'la Mawdudi explains,
                    The fundamental principle of the Law is that man has the right, and in some cases the bounden duty,
                    to fulfil all his genuine needs and desires and make every conceivable effort to promote his interests
                    and achieve success and happiness--but (and it is and important "but") he should do all this in such a
                    way that not only are the interests of other people not jeopardized and no harm is caused to their
                    strivings towards the fulfillment of their rights and duties, but there should be all possible social co-
                    hesion, mutual assistance and cooperation among human beings in the achievement of their objectives.
The Shari'ah, then, is the most humanizing force in the world.  It is not in conflict with other true humanizing forces of religion and science, but it is the final, all encompassing, perfect guide.
            "Because the Shari'ah was worked out by scholars in different parts of the Muslim world, a number of different scholars of law developed with slight differences.  The Hanafi school, dominant today in central and western Asia, northern Egypt, and India, is the most liberal and flexible.  The Maliki school, prominent today in North Africa and southern Egypt, and the Shafi'i school, in Malaysia and East Africa, are generally considered middle of the road.  The Hanbali school, dominant in Saudi Arabia, is the most conservative and strict.  But in practice there are no fundamental differences among these schools, and all are regarded by one another as fully orthodox.  The Shi'ites have three schools of law, differing from the Sunnite schools mainly in authority of the imam, the recognition of temporary marriage (a limited time of marriage specified in the marriage contract), a stricter divorce law, and more provision for female relative sin the inheritance law.

"Muslim Ethics in Practice.  Islamic law is learned, in its basics, by all Muslims so they can live their loves properly.  But how can there be definite divine rules about every aspect of human life?  The Islamic answer is to classify all acts into five basic categories or principles that allow for a range of shading and flexibility.  Some duties and acts are required (fard) of all Muslims; performing them brings reward and omitting them brings punishment.  Again, some acts are strictly forbidden (haram), and doing them brings punishment. Some acts are recommended but nor required, and performance of them is rewarded.  Some acts are disapproved but not forbidden or punished,. And, finally, some acts are indifferent, neither rewarded nor punished.  The Pillar of Prayer, for example, is required; drinking alcohol is forbidden.  Recommended acts would be, for example, saying extra prayers or visiting Medina after the pilgrimage.  The categories of indifferent acts and disapproved acts allow for some disagreement between legal scholars and among the schools of law.  An action may be held disapproved by one but indifferent by another; or something considered to be forbidden by one scholar might be thought of as merely disapproved by another.
            "There are other elements of flexibility in Islamic jurisprudence.  The law only applies to those who are rashid, that is, free Muslims of legal age and same.  Non-Muslims have complete legal freedom provided they do not interfere with the religious interests of Muslims.  Further, a fundamental principle of religious law is intent.  Normally forbidden actions are permissible under duress. For example, drinking wine or have illegal intercourse under threat of death is permissible; refusal under these circumstances would be forbidden.  Punishments for forbidden actions can only be carried out if very stringent requirements of proof of wrongdoing are met--for example, four eyewitnesses are required in a charge of unlawful sexual intercourse.
            "A good part of Islamic law is focused on the family, for this is the broad arena in which the individual lives most of her life.  In fact, for women in traditional Muslim societies social contacts outside the extended family are few.  Marriage is a duty carried out on the basis of a legal contract consented to by both parties.  Sexual expression is considered good and healthy, but it is strictly reserved for marriage.  All other forms of sex are forbidden and punished: premarital and extramarital sex, homosexuality, prostitution, bestiality, and so forth.  To control the natural sexual urges, Islamic law forbids intermingling of sexes (unless they are nonmarriageable relatives) in any social gathering or even in schools.  Further, the law requires modesty in dress; the most conservative law school holds that no more than a woman's face and hands should be visible when she is outside the home.  Men ar also to clothe themselves modestly.
            "Divorce is permitted in Islam, although Muhammad said that God considers divorce to be the most detestable of permitted things.  Traditionally the man could divorce his wife by the formula of repudiation, uttering "I divorce you" three times, usually with a prescribed waiting period between the utterances.  Once the third repudiation is uttered, it is irrevocable and the man has no more claim on the woman.  If they for some reason want to be married again, the woman must first be married to someone else and then divorced.
            "What is the position of women in Islamic law?  Man and women are equal before God, according to the Quran (16:97).  The woman like the man has standing as a legal individual, retaining her property to use as she sees fit.  But women have a different role from men.  Whereas the man's role is to work and support the family, the woman's place is in the home, providing care and stability for family life.  If a woman must work outside the home, it should be in certain types of occupations appropriate for women, such as teaching of nursing.  A Muslim man is permitted to marry four wives, whereas a Muslim woman may have only one husband.  Muslims point out that one basic reason for polygamy is to ensure that all women can be married and thus fulfill themselves in family life.  Further, in actuality very few Muslim men have more than one wife, for Islamic law dictates that a man must treat his wives equally both in sexual relationship and in financial support.
            "There are other aspects of Islamic law in which women seem of lesser value than men. For example, certain legal proceedings require two male witnesses or one male and two female witnesses, and a woman relative generally receives only one-half the inheritance of an equal male relative.  Further, a Muslim man is permitted to marry a non-Muslim monotheistic woman, but this permission is not extended to a Muslim woman.  The Quran seemingly subjugates wives to their husbands: "Men are in charge of women, because Allah made the one of them to excel the other"--and men may banish wives who are disobedient from the marital bed and beat them (4:34).  Muslims explain these seeming inequalities on the basis of the particular roles of women and men in society and in the family.  For example, with respect to inheritance law, husbands are required by Islamic law to support their wives and families, while wives are not required to contribute to the financial support of the family, and so makes a certain sense that sons should receive a greater inheritance share than daughters.  Since men have a more public role while women's activities take place within the family, Muslims say, it is appropriate that the husband should have the role of making decisions and governing the life of the family.
            "When the question of the status of women in Islam is brought up, Muslims point out that, whereas in Christendom and in most of the world until very recently women were considered little more than property with no legal rights, Islamic law instituted by Muhammad lifted the status of women and gave them equal rights with men.  Certainly the Quran presents a strong basic view of the equality of women and men.  This does not mean, however, that they should have the same function as men in society, for in God's divine pattern women fulfill their high potential in maintaining the well-being of the family.
            "Many modern Muslim leaders and governments have brought about reforms in those aspects of Muslim traditional law and cultural practices that subjugated women.  Notable among these reforms have been the discouragement of child marriage; restricting the taking of more than one wife, allowing stipulations about this to be written into the marriage contract; and moving toward more equity in divorce right for women. Women may, for example, be able to initiate divorce on grounds such as the husbands' physical incapacity, desertion, failure to provide support, cruelty, and the like.
            "As Muslims respond to the pressures of the modern world, some scholars are studying the Quran and Hadith anew to reinterpret the role of women in modern Muslim society. Women are found in various profession, providing strong leadership in Muslim communities, though not yet in public religious leadership roles. While many Muslim women have become Westernized in dress there is a tendency among some Muslim women today to reassert their Muslim  identity by choosing more traditional dress--to recover their own spiritual sources rather than bowing to Western secular ideas, and to give themselves more freedom and confidence in their new public roles without the sexual innuendoes and sexual harassment often associated with Western dress and social intercourse.  The role of women--equal with men, but different--is very complex in Muslim tradition.  Much thought and care is being devoted to this subject today, and Muslim women will certainly increasingly shape Islamic life and thought.
            "With respect to personal life, the Shari'ah forbids the use of things that a re injurious to one's physical, mental, or moral life.  Besides alcohol and drugs, there are forbidden goods, falling into four basic categories: carrion, blood, pork, and anything sacrificed to another god.  By carrion is meant beasts of prey and anything that died without being slaughtered properly, such as by old age, illness, or being killed improperly (by another animal or ba a hunter, for example).  People are required to keep the body clean, and one should not wear excessively costly clothes or jewelry.
            "The rights of other people in society are especially guarded by the Shari'ah.  Lying, cheating, theft, bribery, forgery, and other means of illegal gain at the expense of others are forbidden.  And gambling and games of chance are forbidden because in them someone wins at the expense of others.  Likewise forbidden are various forms of exploitation, such as monopoly, hoarding, black marketeering, withholding land from cultivation, and the like.  Usury--that is, charging interest on loans--is also considered a form of gain at the expense of others and thus is forbidden.  While this makes capitalistic endeavors difficult, it promotes solidarity and cooperation with respect to the use of financial resources.  Islamic banking endeavors have come up with creative methods of providing necessary funding without charging interest, with the lender then sharing in the profits (and the risks) of economic enterprises.  Another device by which the Muslim tradition prevents the excessive accumulation of wealth by one party is inheritance law, which requires that the wealth  be distributed to all eligible relatives rather than being kept in one estate.  Muslims consider wealth as God's blessing, but it is not to be hoarded or squandered by rather used to the betterment of oneself and others.
            "Non-Muslims sometimes think of Islam as a religion of the sword, a religion of violence.  It is true that certain Muslim political radicals have committed acts of terrorism--but no more than certain political radicals of other religions in other places.  The Shari'ah also has legislation o the justification and conduct of war.  In general it may be said that the only permissible reason for warfare is striving in the  cause of God--which is what the term jihad (often translate "holy war") means.  This means that wars for land, resources, power, wealth, and all the rest are prohibited.  Striving in the cause of God means enforcing God's law about equality and justice for all.  Thus the Muslim tradition has a king of "just war" idea, in that Muslims are obligated to take up arms in self-defense or in defense of others who are being oppressed and treated unjustly.  Such warfare, however, is strictly regulated: negotiations must always be made first with the other side, booty may not be taken and innocent people may not be injured.

Transformation of Human Society

            "Muslims have a vision for society, and the contours of that vision find expression in the Shari'ah.  Since this law is God's final and perfect design, it is the responsibility of Muslims to implement it for all societies of the world.  And since the Islamic principles of faith are the same universal principles that have been revealed by all God's prophets, it is the duty of Muslims to convince all other peoples to submit to this truth of Islam.  In other words, Muslims have the duty to engage in dawah, missionary activities directed toward the Islamicization of the world, both in the laws of society and in the faith of all people.
            "But the Islamic vision of the good life under the law has one important difference from the jewish or Christian vision.  To live the Shari'ah in all its aspects requires that one live under a Muslim government.  In fact, ideally there should be one Muslim ruler (the caliph) who rules over the whole Dar al-Islam.  Since the Shari'ah contains provisions that can only be carried out by a government, it not possible to follow the complete life of Islam while living under a non-Muslim ruler.
            "Thus the Islamicization of society ideally means establishing an Islamic government.  The notion of jihad, "striving" in the path of God plays a part at this point.  It refers to conquering all forces that oppose God's will, starting with one's own sins and unbelief.  Since the realms of society not ruled by Muslim governments do not confirm to God's law, in theory there is a perpetual state of jihad between the Dar al-Islam and the infidel society, the Dar al-Harb.  Some leaders of the Islamic resurgence today would direct that struggle also against modern secular governments in Muslim countries such as Egypt, Algeria, Syria, and the like, since these governments do not rule by the Shari'ah.  The Islamic ideal would be for the whole world to come under Islamic rule and Islamic law. This would bring great benefits even for non-Muslims, according to some Muslim thinkers, since it would keep them from forbidden acts and provide a peaceful, orderly society without all the evils of modern, secular society.

"The Spiritual Mission of Islam.  Spreading Islamic law does not means religious coercion, which is expressly forbidden in the Quran (2:256).  The Shari'ah permits some religions to continue even in the Dar al-Islam.  Those who are monotheists and possess a sacred scripture are know as People of the Book--this includes Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians; although their faith is faulty, they are nonetheless acceptable to God.  They can live peacefully within Muslim domains by paying a special tax.  But, at least according to traditional law, polytheists must either convert to monotheism or flee; otherwise they face imprisonment or execution.
            "The missionary impulse in Islam comes from the knowledge that this is the final religion with the final, perfect revelation of God.  While God gave revelation of the same faith through prophets in all other lands, the Arabic Quran is the last such revelation and is intended for all peoples universally.  Submitting to the divine trust, Muslims feel compelled to share this revelation with all others.
            "But how should Muslims share this revelation with others?  God's great gifts to humans are intelligence, free will, and speech.  Speech is the means of sharing the Quran with others.  God's gift of free will means no coercion or forcing people to accept Islam.  Rather, God's truth should be spread in a rational way, appealing to human intelligence, allowing others to become convinced by their  reason and submit to this final truth.  If people really consider Islam in a rational , free way, Muslims believe, they will see that it is the highest truth of God and human existence.  Maududi says,
                    This is Islam, the natural religion of man, the religion which is not associated with any person, people,
                    period or place.   It is the way of nature, the religion of man.  In every age, in every country and among
                    every people, all God-knowing and truth-loving men have believed and lived this very religion.  They
                    were all Muslims, irrespective of whether they called that way Islam" (from T.M. Ludwig, The Sacred
                    Paths: Understanding the Religions of the World, 471-76).

Study of Islam as a Conclusion

            Study of Islam.  Once again we will look at another scholar's summary of a major religious tradition in order to review what we have done in class and in reading our textbook in relation this time to Islam.  The summary will consider Islam's monotheistic background, its founding and history, its sacred book, and especially its basic doctrines and practices as well as its two major groups.  The summary is
intended to clarify the major tenets of Islam.

            "Summary  The youngest of the world religions is Islam, which began in Arabia in the seventh Christian century.  It stands in the Western Biblical tradition because it is monotheistic and it interacted with Judaism and Christianity during its origin and early development.  Both these historical factors are seen in the founder, Muhammad ("highly praised"), born about A.D. 570 in the Arabian city of Mecca.  The religion of most of the people, especially the desert Bedouin, was a fairly primitive polytheism, but there were monotheists among the Arabs.  We do not know much about Muhammad's early life or religious development; tradition dates his call as the Prophet in the Islamic month of Ramadan in A.D. 610, when he was instructed in a vision to "recite" the words which, with many others, were later recorded in the Qur'an.  Continuing to receive such messages which were to be "read aloud" (quran), he began to proclaim monotheism in the name of Allah, the Arabian name for the one God.  Over several years he gained a few converts among his own family and friends, and then gradually won other converts by his preaching of repentance before the judgment and reward or punishment of Allah.  Because of growing hostility and danger, he and his followers withdrew to the city of Medina, where he consolidated his group and organized the community into the brotherhood of believers.  The year of the hijra ("migration") is 622, and the Islamic calendar counts time since then as A.H., anno Hegirae in Latin, or "year of the hegira."  Within eight years he had returned to Mecca in triumph, and when he died in 632 the conversion of the whole Arabia was well under way.
            "Muhammad was and is the Prophet, the Messenger of God, who coined the word "Islam" for the
voluntary "submission" of a believer to the one God Allah, and proclaimed the message of that faith which now embraces over 500,000,000 people in abroad belt of lands extending eastward from the Near East through Asia and into the Pacific area.  A member of the faith is a Muslim, one who submits to God, and Muhammad is supremely but only the Prophet who proclaims God and the faith, a human being and in no sense himself a divine savior figure.  For four hundred years after him there were the caliphs or "successors" who ruled Islam as it expanded with amazing rapidity into the neighboring lands and parts of Europe.  This growth was largely by military conquest, but no all conversions to Islam were by force, for Jews and Christians were generally allow to practice their faith, and millions of new adherents voluntarily
made their submission, to Allah as preached by Muhammad, and to the faith of Islam founded by him.
            "In addition tot he supreme scripture from God as recited by Muhammad and preserved in the Qur'an, there is the Hadith or Tradition of what Muhammad himself did or said, which thus became the custom or sunnah of Islam.  There are also four schools and corresponding books of fiqh (jurisprudence or law) which embody different interpretations of the basic system of religiously based social structure and law (Shariah) which guides the Islamic community.
            "There is no official list or statement of Islamic doctrines, but most Muslims would include the following in a set of basic Islamic tenets:
        1. Allah is the one and only God, infinite, eternal, incomparable, undivided, spiritual, transcendent, Creator, Ruler, and Judge of all.
        2. There are angel messengers of  God, and human prophets (nabi) to warn mankind, of whom Muhammad is supreme as the "seal" or last.  Holy books also are from God, the Qur'an for Islam, to warn all people.
        3. They warn of the coming judgment by Allah of all persons and their reward or punishment, but those who submit, Muslims, will receive God's mercy.
            "The "Five Pillar's are the fundamental religious laws or practices which constitute the worship and ritual of Islam: (1) The Creed, "There is no God bu Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet," becomes a profession of faith when precede by  "I bear witness that...."  (2) Prayer, both public and private, is the heart of Islamic piety. (3)  It is a religious duty to give alms for the poorer brethren. (4) The liturgical month of Ramadan is fast, with abstention from food and sex required during the daylight hours of each day.  (5) All Muslims who can afford it should make a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca and perform the pilgrimage rites in the Great Mosque and at other holy sites, at least once in their lifetime.
            "Islamic ethical and social institutions are shaped by Sunnah and Shariah.  They developed into a system of many external rules and regulations, enforced by public opinion of the Islamic community, and graded in five degrees from "obligatory" to "forbidden".  There are two principal divisions within Islam: the large majority of Sunni Muslims, and the Shiite minority of about one fifth of the total.  Following the same basic religious beliefs and worship, they differ in that the Shiah, "partisans" or "adherents" of Ali, consider him and his son Husayn and their descendants the true spiritual leaders of Islam, and they reject the sunnah as Islamic law.
            "The essence of Islam, its meaning and heart to the believers, is that through submission to God Muslims (submitters) gain the peace and security of giving in to the one who is in control, who rules, and who judges all at the end.  Allah is merciful to those who submit. They submit. Thus they are sure of Allah's mercy, and they trust in his will; this brings a sense of trust, relaxation, calmness, and peace" (from W.J. Fellows, Religions East and West, pp. 420--22).
            In conclusion, I refer you to the brief summary of the contemporary Muslim scene in your textbook (Religions World, pp. 403-9), as well as the following glossary of major terms.

4) Islam's Self-Definition

            For a discussion of this topic, see your handout, which is essentially a series of statements about: the role of God (monotheism and its consequences), the position and role of humanity in God's plan, the role also of Muhammad in Islam's beginnings and as present model, a note on the five pillars, some important, if brief comments on the essential differences between Sunni and Shiite conceptions of political and religious leadership.  Finally, I presented there a brief statement (2 paragraphs on "Contemporary Islam").   Islam, as is true of other Western and Eastern religious traditions, is being confronted by modernity.  There are various reactions possible, and we can assume that all will and are being manifested in contemporary Muslim society.  What seems most assured is that Islam, like other Western traditions, will and is undergoing a new Enlightenment.

          Suggestions for forthcoming exam

                                                                                                                                                                 [posted 3/27/06)

Judaism

            the story of God's choice of and relation to the Jewish nation: chosen people, covenant, history as
                    people's relation to God
            the importance and roles of Abraham, Moses, the prophets
            the Babylonian exile, the diaspora, and the holocaust and creation of the state of Israel
            Judaism as a ìreligion of the bookî--the Hebrew bible
            basic tenets of Judaism: notion of God, humanity, and history (theology, anthropology, and
                    salvation history)
            major Jewish liturgical practices, feasts, and customs
            Judaism as a moral force, its principal moral concepts
            Jewish notion of God: from polytheism to monotheism
 

Christianity

            knowledge of Jesus, his role as founder, his teachings, and belief in him as lord and savior,
                        christology (role Jesus plays in belief & theology)
            christian concept of God: God, trinity, Jesus as Son
            importance of sacraments, esp. baptism and eucharist
            christian bible: old & new, content & role of scriptures in christian communities
            some important figures: Paul, Augustine, Aquinas, Luther
            institutional evolution: episcopal/papal authority, monastic movement/mission, East/West,
                        Protestant reformation
            three principal forms of christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Protestantism
 

Islam

            life, work, and role of Muhammad
            historical and religious importance of Mecca and Medina
            content, authority, and importance of the Quran (also the Hadith)
            basic doctrines: regarding God, revelation, creation (esp human nature and place in creation)
            importance of the Ummah or community and its law and tradition
            nature, content, and importance of the Five Pillars
            origin, role, importance, beliefs of two major groups: Sunnis and Shiites
 

Goals for Exam

            clear idea of concepts, how relate to development of religion, and how function in religious outlook and practice.  Prepare to discuss all three Western religious traditions.

3) The Five Pillars, the Community, Groups in Islam

            a. The Five Pillars.  We might begin our discussion of the "Five Pillars" by citing our own notes on the role played by these practices in the life of a Muslim.  "The five pillars of Islam are presented in the founding revelation and the prophet's life as the first duty owed by humanity to God, the essence of the life of submission.  The five pillars feed and build a total life orientation, and...are the widest and deepest means of grace open to the masses of humanity, the gateways to a presence who forgives, sustains, and transforms" (taken from P. McLean, "Islam," 654 in Nielson et al, Religions of the World).  Further, rather than give a list and brief comments on these five important themes and practices, I will cite another scholar's brief, enlightening description of these.

            (1) "Creed.  'There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet.'  (La illaha illah Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah.)  This formula, the Shahadah, becomes a profession of faith when preceded by, 'I bear witness that....'  Solemn recitation of the first clause constitutes one as a muslim, submitter to God, and of the second makes one a Muslim, an adherent of the faith.  It is understood and stated in religious instruction that reciting the creed implies belief in the Qur'an, in traditions, and in traditional teachings about angels, prophets, saints, the scriptures, and judgment.  Any educated Muslim would be expected to understand and accept a rational explanation and description of these teachings.  The brief, formal creed, therefore, actually entails a larger body of belief, such as was described in our section on tenets.
            "The celebration of the birthday of Muhammad is the most important expression of reverence for him, and perhaps the most universal Islamic festival except for the feast at the end of Ramadan.  It falls on the twelfth of the month Rabi, which of course is a movable date.  The actual celebration is often on the eve of the feast, observed with a parade and other public celebrations.

            (2) "Prayer.  It was because Muhammad was outraged by intoxicated persons causing disorder at the time of prayer in the mosque that wine was restricted and later prohibited.  Salat, ritual prayer, has a wider meaning than the more personal communion with God connoted by the word du'a, because salat refers primarily to public and ritual prayers. There is no doubt that prayer was the core of Muhammad's personal devotion life and the source of his power, and it is the most important element in Islamic public and private piety.  The canonical rule is for prayer five times a day, wherever one may be, at dawn, noon, before sunset, just after sunset, and after dark. Ritual purity calls for washing, if possible, before liturgical prayer, and thus there is a pool in front of a mosque; and for purification of the place where one prays, the prayer rug is used.
            "There is a simple basic formula for prayer: praise to God, petitions, and recitation from the Qur'an, accompanied by kneeling and prostration.  'The Opening' (Fatihah), or first sura from the Qur'an, is so named because it is used to begin the prayer ritual:
                    Praise belongs to God, the Lord of all Being,
                    the All-merciful, and All-compassionate
                            The Master of the Day of Doom.
                    Thee only we serve; to Thee alone we pray for succour.
                            Guide us in the straight path,
                    the path of those whom Thou hast blessed,
                    not of those against whom Thou art wrathful,
                            nor of those who are astray. (S. 1:1-6)
            "Although Friday is not a sabbath day, men are expected to convene in the mosque at noon for common recitation of prayers, usually under the direction of an imam or leader.  Any devout layman may lead public prayer--there are no priest in Islam.
            "Muhammad helped construct the first mosque in Medina.  The mosque is a place of prayer, and is frequented by the faithful at all times for their study and devotions.  In the Middle East the floor of a mosque is usually covered with carpets, on which one kneels and prostrates oneself during the prayers.  No images or representation of any living creature are permitted in a mosque, only geometrical patterns and script from the Qur'an.  The central spot of the mosque is the mihrab, a small niche in the wall which indicates the direction (qibla) of Mecca, toward which all turn for prayer.  There is also a pulpit (mimbar), usually raised on steps.

            (3) "Alms.  The duty to give alms for the poorer brethren was at first voluntary but was later made into a system of taxation for other purposes.  In modern times the payment of alms in the proper sense is again mostly a voluntary matter. Benevolence toward the needy is the prime social responsibility of a Muslim.

            (4) "Fast.  During the liturgical month of Ramadan all pious Muslims must fast during each day from the time in the morning when one can tell a white thread from a black until sunset.  No food or water is allowed and sex is prohibited during those hours.  Meals are allowed before and after the daytime, but the spirit of the fast is supposed to govern the whole month.  In Islamic countries the daytime Ramadan fast is generally observed by the faithful.

            (5) "Pilgrimage.  Among the pre-Islamic elements which Muhammad preserved and adapted were the central stone (Kaaba) at Mecca and the pilgrimage rites connected with it. Tradition identified Islam as derived from Abraham through Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Hagar, as recounted in Genesis 16, 17, and 21.  Abraham is said to have built the Kaaba, and one of the structures near it houses the stone on which he stood. The well Zam Zam is described as the one which saved Ishmael's and Hagar's life, Genesis 21:19.
            "The pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj, literally, 'setting out') is supposed to be performed by every Muslim who can afford it, in obedience to numerous injunctions in the Qur'an.  Although it is not observed by all, the hajj has served to unify Islam and to relate and unite Muslims who are scattered across the world. Those who do make the pilgrimage are considered representatives of all Muslims. They gain forgiveness of sins and assurance of salvation; afterward they are called hajj or hajji (Turkish).  Gathering at the sacred city in the month of pilgrimage, they all wear identical, white piligrimage robes, observe the rules, and perform the ceremonies which take nearly two weeks.  The physical and spiritual center of Mecca is the Great Mosque, a large open square surrounded by wide covered corridors opening on the square, with the minarets that are the mark of a mosque throughout Islam towering overhead.  The center of the mosque is the Kaaba or cube--a square, empty, windowless, stone structure covered by a great black brocade richly embroidered in gold thread with Qur'anic texts in Arabic script.  Set in the southeast corner is the holiest object, the sacred stone from earlier times, now much worn and enclosed with a silver collar or frame.
            "The three duties absolutely required of pilgrims are": to wear the white garment (ihram); to 'stand before God' from noon to sunset on Arafat, the Mount of Mercy where Muhammad delivered his farewell sermon, on the ninth day; and the tawaf, seven ceremonial counterclockwise circuits of the Kaaba, kissing or touching the stone each time if possible (the crowd may be too great).  There are five less strict duties; one of these is running between two low hills in remembrance of Hagar's frantic search for water for her child Ishmael.  Another is the vigil at Muzadalifa before the great feast at Mina on the tenth day, which is the joyous end of the major parts of the pilgrimage" (W.J. Fellows, Religions East and West, 383-86).

            b. The Ummah or Community.    For discussion of life in the community, see RW 381 f and part 4 later.

            c. Groups in Islam.  One should read especially on the differences between the majority Sunnis and the substantial minority Shiites (the Shia); see RW 386f.  See also discussion of of "the Sufis" on pp. 394f.

            d. Later Islamic History.  One would need much time, energy, and space to discuss, even briefly, the centuries of Muslim expansion and history both in the East and West and finally into the African areas.  The crusade period along would require much work and a study of the Ottoman Empire and the formation of the modern countries where Islam either predominates or is a major factor.     
    

2) Islam: The Quran and Its Fundamental Beliefs

            a. The Quran.  In very simple terms we might describe the Quran as follows: "For Muslims, the Quran is the Book of God (kitab al-Allah).  It is the eternal, uncreated, literal word of God (kalam Allah) sent down from heaven, revealed one final time to the Prophet Muhammad as a guide for humankind (2:185).  The Quran consists of 114 chapters (suras) of 6,000 verses (ayats), originally revealed to Muhammad over a period of twenty-two years.  It is approximately four-fifths the size of the New Testament, and its chapters are arranged according to length, not chronology.  The longer chapters, representing the later Medinan revelations, precede the shorter, earlier Meccan revelations to Muhammad" (Esposito, Islam 20).

            Tradition insists that the Quran is the result of a relatively long process beginning with the revelation from God to Muhammad, via the angel Gabriel, to the recitation of this revelation by disciples to an eventual series of collections and their final compilation under Othman.  Thus the traditional arrangement of the material is rather artificial or mechanical: the shorter, Meccan oracular material is situated in the second half while the longer, more discursive and hortatory materials of the Medinan period finds itself in the first half of the collection.

            Further we might describe the Quran and the Muslim's reverence for this holy book as follows: "Muhammad's recitation of the Qur'an is the only miraculous exploit ascribed to him, if one counts the Night Journey (from Jerusalem to heaven) as mythological or legendary, as most educated Muslims do. This is conformable with the orthodox insistence on his complete humanity, but it is a fundamental dogma for all Islam.  For all Muslims the Qur'an is the book, a divinely dictated scripture, unique and incomparable.  For Muslims, God's revelation is the book itself, in contrast to Judaism which sees it in events such as the Exodus, or Christianity which sees it in a person, or Taoism which sees it in nature and mystic experience.  This produces an attitude of reverence and awe toward the Qur'an and its words, which pervades all Islam.  A critical but sympathetic, modern, non-Muslim reader can readily acknowledge the spiritual power and depth of the book.  This impression arises from two aspects of the Qur'an which come through even in an English translation.  One is the sincerity, conviction, and intensity of Muhammad's call to submit, to yield to God; the other is--in spite of its unsystematic character as directed to specific occasions and circumstances--the cumulative vision of the glory, majesty, power, judgment, love, and mercy of God" (W.J. Fellow, Religions East and West, 369-70--note how Fellow spells "Qur'an")).

            b. Modern Study of the Quran.  The Muslim holy book, like the books of other religious traditions, particularly the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, are being subjected today to modern critical scholarly study.  This literary quest, as it concerns the Quran, can be said to be in its infancy and it is presumed will have long range consequences both for believers and non-believers in the way they will view Islam and its holy book.  From a study of the chronology and style of the Quran's 114 suras or chapters the following probable steps have been discerned in the growth of the Quranic collection.

            (1) Many suras can be dated as very early and are characterized as highly poetic verses, expressed either in high Arabic poetic style or as brief, semi-lyrical statements of exhortation and eschatological warnings.  These suras are generally described as containing power and beauty.  These suras are generally ascribed to the early Meccan period.

            (2) At a later stage one finds suras with more allusive techniques of poetic satire, similar in fact to the work of popular poets, bards, and preachers of the time.  These suras are described as containing pointed teaching addressed to specific issues and situations.

            (3) At a still later stage one encounters suras that present extended narratives, arguments, and didactic discourses using images from nature and dealing with more social, human, and organizational issues.  One sees here the leader's concerns for the Ummah as it develops in Medina and beyond.

            (4) Finally and still later there appear suras that are devoted to topical addresses and legal prescriptions. Scholars are quick to note that in these suras structure and argument are subordinated to form and language to message.

            Thus from such analysis (at least the classification of materials in such terms), one begins to get a sense of the development of the Prophet's preaching and concerns and of course to get a better idea about the growth of the materials that were eventually incorporated in the final edition of the Quran.  Such critical study will, with time, have a profound influence on Muslim thought and even practice as Islam, as other religious traditions, dialogue more fully with the modern world and its critical concerns.

            c. Fundamental Beliefs of the Quran.  One could spend time here discussing the basic presuppositions (fundamental beliefs) and affirmations and teachings of the Quran.  But at this juncture a list (with some observations) will have to suffice. Clearly the Quran's teaching about God or Allah is by far the most dramatic and basic for the Muslim tradition.  The oneness, unity, and supreme character of God is omnipresent in the Quran.  In this aspect Islam reveals its affinity with the other monotheistic traditions, for God is the absolute creator, ruler, and judge of the universe, alone with its human inhabitants.  Additionally God is particularly viewed as a transcendent rather than an immanent figure.  Further God is a God of revelation, one who speaks to humanity (past prophets in Judaism and Christianity), most definitively through Muhammad the messenger par excellence.  To treat more fully the basic teachings of the Quran one would have to emphasize the work's sublime view of God's human creation, along with the role of other angelic and earthly creatures. Further, one would have to point out that, beyond the revelation about Allah, the Quran is most focused on humanity and their place in creation, vis-a-vis God, fellow creatures, and creation itself.  Indeed, God provides through the community of faith (the ummah or Muslim community) the means by which human beings might find their way, along with fellow believers, to the "gardens of eternity which they will enter along with all of their ancestors, spouses and descendants who have acted righteously" (13:23). For further discussion of these basic Quranic teachings, see RW 370-74.  At a later date we will focus on the important credal and ritual practices of Islam known as the five pillars.

          We turn next to a film on Islam from the "Long Search" series.

1) Islam: Beginnings in Arabia & Life of Muhammad

            a. Beginnings in Arabia.  Much can be said of the Fertile Crescent, the area stretching from the Egyptian Nile to the Mesopotamian Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.  Especially important for our purposes is the eastern part of that area and its long series of Semitic peoples who emerged on the stage of world history, from the ancient Akkadians (and Assyrian and Babylonians), to the Amorites (and their famous king Hammurabi), to the Aramean (and others: Canaanites, Hebrews, Edomites, Moabites, etc), to the arrival of Arabic-speaking people from the Arabian motherland.  It is the last mentioned of course which are of concern for us in our study of Islam.

            "The Near East spawned and nurtured a rich variety of religious traditions: ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity.  However, given the nature of tribal society in Arabia and the presence of the Roman (Byzantine) and Persian (Sasanid) empires as buffer states of the Arabian Peninsula, the rise of a new religious movement and the inauguration of a new stage in world history would have seemed unthinkable.  Yet, this occurred in seventh-century Arabia with the revelation of the Quran and under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad.  Islamic religion and the activity of the Muslim community produced a new empire and a rich civilization which came to dominate much of Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.  Because Islam developed in central Arabia, its religious and social milieu provide the context for understanding Muhammad's reformist message and mission" (J.L. Esposito, Islam, 4).

            A focus on Arabia and its Bedouin culture and particularly its advanced South Arabic culture would go a long way in helping us to understand the milieu out of which Muhammad and the Muslim movement emerged.  The pastoral and nomadic societies of the Arabian Peninsula are the setting for the life of Muhammad and the beginnings of Islam, especially the prominent trade, commerce, and pilgrimage center of Mecca and its sister, agricultural city of Yathrib (later called Medina).  The principal tribe of Meccan society was that of the Quraysh, to which Muhammad and his family belonged as part of a lesser clan, the Banu Hashim.

            "The religion of Arabia reflected its tribal nature and social structure.  Gods and goddesses served as protectors of individual tribes, and their spirits were associated with sacred objects--trees, stones, springs, and wells.  Local tribal deities were feared and respected rather than loved, the objects of cultic rituals (sacrifice, pilgrimage, prayer) of supplication and propitiation celebrated at local shrines.  Mecca possessed a central shrine of the gods, the Kaba, a cube-shaped building that housed the 360 idols of tribal patron deities, and was the site of a great annual pilgrimage and fair. While these deities were primary religious actors and objects of worship, beyond this tribal polytheism was a shared belief in Allah ("the god").  Allah, the supreme high god, was the creator and sustainer of life but remote from everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual.  Associated with Allah were three goddesses who were the daughters of Allah: al-Lat, Manat, and al-Uzza" (Esposito, Islam, 5-6).

            Finally, before turning to a lengthy narrative on Muhammad's life, it should be pointed out that Islam finds its place within the current monotheistic tradition of Judaism and Christianity, and to a lesser degree Zoroastrianism.   "Islam was not an isolated, totally new monotheistic religion.  The monotheistic message of the Quran and the preaching of Muhammad did not occur in a vacuum.  Monotheism had been flourishing in Semitic and Iranian cultures for centuries preceding Muhammad's ministry.  The Scriptures and prophets of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism had a long-established presence and roots in Irano-Semitic societies.  Beyond their distinctive differences, all three religious traditions shared a monotheistic faith (the conviction that God is one), prophets, Scriptures, beliefs in angels and devils, and a moral universe encompassing individual and communal accountability and responsibility.  All were the product of primarily urban, not rural or desert, experiences, and were institutionalized in commercial centers by scholarly elites, often supported by sate patronage, who interpreted the early preaching of their prophets and apostles.  Among their common themes were community, fidelity-infidelity, individual moral decision making, social justice, final judgment, and reward and punishment.  In contrast to Indian religious notions of cyclical history, rebirth, and personal perfection, the Judaeo-Christian and Zoroastrian traditions affirmed a sacred history with a beginning and an end within which believers were to follow God's will and realize their eternal destiny in the next life.  To differing degrees, all had become associated with political power, that is, had become an official state religion: Judaism in the kingdoms of Judaea and Israel, Christianity in the Roman (Byzantine) empire, Zoroastrianism in the Persian (Sasanid) empire" (Esposito, Islam, 6-7).

            b. The Life of Muhammad.  First you might consult your class notes for a brief outline of the Prophet's life from his birth c. 570 through his "night of power," movement to Medina, return to Mecca in 630, and death in 632.  The following, balanced and scholarly narrative about the founder of Islam makes for enjoyable and insightful reading, even if long.

            "Muhammad: Prophet of God  History, legend, and Muslim belief portray Muhammad as a remarkable man and prophet.  While we know a good deal about Muhammad's life after his 'call' to be God's messenger, historical records tell us little about Muhammad's early years prior to becoming a prophet at the age of forty in 610 C.E.  The Quran has served as a major source for information regarding the life of the Prophet.  In addition, Prophetic traditions (reports about what Muhammad said and did) and biographies give us a picture of his meaning and significance in early Islam as do Islamic calligraphy and art, where the names of Allah and Muhammad often occur side by side--God and His Prophet.  Muhammad serves both as God's human instrument in bearing His revelation and as the model or ideal whom all believers should emulate.  Thus, understanding of Muhammad and his role in the early Islamic community is crucial for an appreciation of the development of early Islam as well as contemporary Muslim belief and practice.

            "Muhammad ibn Abdullah (the son of Abd Allah) was born in 570 C.E.  Tradition tells us that he was orphaned at a young age.  His father was a trader who died before Muhammad was born; his mother, Amina, died when he was only six years old.  As a young man, Muhammad was employed in Mecca's thriving caravan trade.  The city was at the crossroads of trade routes between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Central Arabia was emerging as a major commercial power, sitting astride important trade routes that extended from Africa across the Middle East to China and Malaysia.  Muhammad became a steward or business manager for the caravans of a wealthy widow, Khadija, whom he subsequently married.  Tradition tells us that at the time, Muhammad was twenty-five years old and Khadija was forty.  During their fifteen years of marriage, they enjoyed a very close relationship and had three sons (who died in infancy) and four daughters.  The most famous of Muhammad's surviving children was Fatima, who would marry Ali, the revered fourth caliph of Sunni Islam and the first legitimate Imam (leader) of Shii Islam.

            "Mecca was a prosperous center of trade and commerce.  Yet it was a society in which traditional tribal ways were strained by Mecca's transition from a semi-Bedouin to a commercial, urban society.  This process was accompanied by serious economic and social cleavages.  Muhammad, who had become a successful member of Meccan society, was apparently profoundly affected by these changes.  He enjoyed great respect for his judgment and trust-worthiness, as was reflected by his nickname al-Amin, the trusted one.  This rectitude was complemented by a reflective nature that led him to retreat regularly to a cave on Mt. Hira, a few miles north of Mecca.  Here, in long periods of solitude, he contemplated his life and the ills of society, seeking greater meaning and insight.  Here , at the age of forty during the month of Ramadan, Muhammad the caravan leader became Muhammad the messenger of God.  On the night Muslims call "The Night of Power and Excellence," he received the first of many revelations from God.  A heavenly intermediary, later identified by tradition as the angel Gabriel, commanded, "Recite."  Muhammad responded that he had nothing to recite.  The angel persisted twice more, and each time a frightened and bewildered Muhammad pleaded that he did not know what to say.  Finally, the words came to him:
                    Recite in the name of your Lord who has created, Created man out of a germ-cell.  Recite for your
                    Lord is the Most Generous One Who has taught by the pen, Taught man what he did not know!

            "With this revelation, Muhammad joined that group of individuals whom Semitic faiths acknowledge as divinely inspired messengers or prophets of God.  Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations over a period of twenty-two years (610-632).  These messages were finally collected and written down in the Quran ("The Recitation"), Islam's sacred scripture.

            "Muslim tradition reports that Muhammad reacted to his 'call' much the same as the Hebrew prophets.  He was both frightened and reluctant. Frightened by the unknown--for surely he did not expect such an experience.  Reluctant, at first, because he feared he was possessed and that others would use such grounds and dismiss his claims as inspired by spirits, or jinns.  Despondent and confused, Muhammad set out to kill himself but was stopped when he again heard the voice say, 'O Muhammad! You are the messenger of God and I am Gabriel.' This message was reinforced by his wife, Khadija, who reassured him that he was neither mad nor possessed; the messenger was from God and not a demon.  Interestingly, according to Muslim tradition a Christian played an important role as well.  one of those whom Khadija and Muhammad turned to for advice was her Christian cousin, Waraqa ibn Qusayy.  When he heard of Muhammad's experience, Waraqa reassured him:
                    Surely, by Him in whose hand is Waraqa's soul, thou art the prophet of this people There hath come
                    unto thee the greatest Namus (angel or Gabriel) who came unto Moses.  Like the Hebrew prophets,
                    Thou wilt be called a liar, and they will use thee despitefully and cast thee out and fight against thee.
For just such reasons, Muhammad, like many of the prophets before him, was initially reluctant to preach God's message.  His fears would be realized.

            "The first ten years of Muhammad's preaching were difficult, marked by Meccan resistance and rejection. While there was a trickle of converts, opposition to Muhammad was formidable. For the powerful and prosperous Meccan oligarchy, the monotheistic message of this would-be reformer, with its condemnation of the socioeconomic inequities of Meccan life, constituted a direct challenge not only to traditional polytheistic religion but also to the power and prestige of the establishment, threatening their economic, social, and political interests.  The Prophet denounced false contracts, usury, and the neglect and exploitation of orphans and widows.  He defended the rights of the poor and the oppressed, asserting that the rich had an obligation to the poor and dispossessed.  This sense of social commitment and responsibility was institutionalized in the form of religious tithes or taxes on wealth and agricultural lands.  Like Amos and Jeremiah before him, Muhammad was a 'warner' from God who admonished his hearers to repent and obey God, for the final judgment was near:
                    Say: 'O men, I am only for you a warner.'  Those who believe, and do deeds of righteousness--theirs
                    shall be forgiveness and generous provision. And those who strive against Our signs to avoid them--
                    they shall be inhabitants of Hell.  (Quran 22:49-50)

            "Muhammad's rejection of polytheism undermined the religious prestige of the Meccans (in particular, the Umayyad clan) as keepers of the Kaba, the religious shrine that housed the tribal idols.  It threatened the considerable revenues that accrued from the annual pilgrimage and festival to this central sanctuary of Arabian tribal religion.  This potential economic loss was coupled with the undermining of Meccan tribal political authority by Muhammad's claim to prophetic authority and leadership and his insistence that all true believers belonged to a single universal community (umma) that transcended tribal bonds.

            "Creation of the islamic Community   For almost ten years, Muhammad struggled in Mecca, preaching God's message and gathering a small band of faithful followers. Among the early converts were Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, and Abu Bakr, his future father-in-law and the first caliph, or successor of the Prophet.  The deaths of Khadija and of his uncle and protector, Abu Talib, in 619 C.E. made life especially difficult.  Meccan opposition escalated from derision and verbal attacks to active persecution.  The core of the opposition came from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe.  As we shall see, their descendants, even after converting to Islam at a later date, would continue to challenge the family of the Prophet.  As conditions deteriorated in Mecca, Muhammad sent some of his followers to other areas, such as Christian Abyssinia, for safety.  The situation changed significantly in 620.  Muhammad was invited by a delegation from Yathrib (later called Medina), a city two hundred miles north of Mecca, to serve as a chief arbitrator or judge in a bitter feud between its Arab tribes.  Muhammad and two hundred of his followers quietly emigrate, from July to September 622, to Medina.  This emigration (hijra) marked a turning point in Muhammad's fortunes and a new stage in the history of the Islamic movement.  Islam took on political form with the establishment of an Islamic community-state at Medina.  The significance of the hijra is reflected in its adoption as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.  Muslims chose to date their history from neither Muhammad's birth nor his reception of the first revelation in 610, but from the creation of the Islamic community (umma).  The community, as much as the individual, was to be the vehicle for realizing God's will on earth.

            "Muhammad at Medina  At Medina, Muhammad had the opportunity to implement God's governance and message, for he was now the prophet-head of a religiopolitical community. He did this by establishing his leadership in Medina, subduing Mecca, and consolidating Muslim rule over the remainder of Arabia through diplomatic and military means.

            Muhammad had come to Medina as the arbiter or judge for the entire community, Muslim and non-Muslim alike.  In addition, he was the leader of all the Muslims, the commander of the faithful, both those who had emigrated from Mecca (the muhajirin, emigrants) and those raised in Medina (the ansar, helpers).  While the majority of the Arab tribes came to embrace Islam, the Jewish tribes (that is, those Arabs who had previously converted to Judaism) remained an important minority.  Muhammad promulgated a charter, sometimes called the constitution of Medina, but set out the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the Muslim community (umma) to their communities. Muslims constituted an umma whose primary identity and bond were no longer to be tribal ties but a common religious faith and commitment.  Jews were recognized as a separate community allied to the Muslim umma, but with religious and cultural autonomy.

            "As the Medinan state was taking shape, Muhammad also turned his attention to Mecca.  Mecca was the religious, political, economic, and intellectual center of Arabia.  Its importance was not diminished by its hostility to Muhammad's preaching.  If anything, further revelations to Muhammad, which designated Mecca as the direction (qibla) for prayer and the site for Muslim pilgrimage (hajj), increased its religious significance.  Muslim religious fervor was matched by the power of Meccan mores that branded the Muslims as secessionists and traitors.  All the ingredients were there for a formidable battle.  Muhammad initiated a series of raids against Meccan caravans, threatening both the political authority and the economic power of the Quraysh.  Several important battles ensured. In 624 at Badr, near Medina, Muslim forces, though greatly outnumberd, defeated the Meccan army.  For Muslims, then and now, the Battle of Badr has special significance.  It was the first and a most decisive victory for the forces of monotheism over those of polytheism, for the army of God over the followers of ignorance and unbelief.  God had sanctioned and assisted His soldiers (Quran 3:123, 8:42ff) in victory.  Quranic witness to divine guidance and intervention made Badr a sacred symbol....

            "The elation after Badr was dissipated when Muslims were defeated by the Meccans in the Battle of Uhud in 625, where Muhammad himself was wounded.  Finally, in 627, frustrated by the growing strength of Muhammad, the Meccans mounted an all-out seige of Medina in order to once and for all crush their opposition.  At the Battle of the 'Ditch' (so named because the Muslims dug a trench to neutralize the Meccan cavalry), the Muslims held out so successfully against a coalition of Meccans and mercenary Bedouins that the coalition disintegrated.  The Meccans withdrew.  The failure of the Quraysh enhanced Muhammad's prestige and leadership among the tribes of Arabia, placing him in the ascendant position.  He had consolidated his leadership in Medina, extended his influence over other tribal areas in the Hijaz, and asserted his independence of the then dominant tribe in central Arabia.  The balance of power had shifted.  Muhammad would now initiate, and Mecca would respond.

            "The final phase in the struggle between Medina and Mecca highlights the method and political genius of Muhammad.  He employed both military and diplomatic means, often preferring the latter.  Instead of seeking to rout his Meccan opponents, Muhammad sought to gain submission to God and His messenger by incorporating them within the Islamic community-state.  A truce was struck in 628 at Hudaybiyah to permit the Muslims to make their pilgrimage to Mecca the following year.  In 629, Muhammad established Muslim control over the Hijaz and led the pilgrimage to Mecca, as had been scheduled.  Then in 630, Muhammad accused the Quraysh of breaking the treaty, and the Muslims marched on Mecca, ten thousand strong.  The Meccans capitulated.  Eschewing vengeance and the plunder of conquest, the Prophet instead accepted a settlement, granting amnesty rather than wielding the sword toward his former enemies.  For their part, the Meccans converted to Islam, accepted Muhammad's leadership, and were incorporated within the umma.

            "During the next two years, Muhammad established his authority over much of Arabia.  The Bedouins who resisted were defeated militarily.  At the same time, so many tribes in Arabia sent delegations to come to terms with the successor to the Quraysh that Muslim history remembers this period as the year of deputations.  Alliances were forged. While many converted to Islam, others did not.  Representatives were sent from Medina to teach the Quran and the duties and rituals of Islam, and to collect the taxes due Medina.  In the spring of 632, Muhammad led the pilgrimage to Mecca, where the sixty-two-year-old leader preached his farewell sermon, exhorting his followers:
                    Know ye that every Moslem is a brother unto every other Moslem, and that ye are now one brotherhood. 
                    It is not legitimate for any one of you, therefore, to appropriate unto himself anything that belongs to his
                    brother unless it is willingly given him by that brother.
These words summarize both the nature of the Islamic community and the accomplishment of the Prophet Muhammad.  When he died three months later in June 632, all Arabia was united under the banner of Islam (Esposito, Islam, 7-13).

            a. Beliefs.  In speaking of basic Christian beliefs one must start with its Jewish heritage and its belief in one God, its monotheistic faith.  From Judaism the Christian movement has inherited its concept of who God is (creator, ruler, judge), its view of the Divine Reality as "personal," as a holy, caring, revealer who not only creates humanity and the cosmos but fosters a relationship or covenant with humanity and, in its best forms, sees the cosmos itself as seeking its ultimate fulfillment in its union with the Creator (see Paul in Romans 8:18-25).

            Further, its belief in the one God, in view of Jesus' teaching and its reflection on its own scriptures, has led it to postulate the extended belief in a triune God, i.e., a trinity of persons or in other words: three persons in One God.  These persons are characterized as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Ghost).  The first is the source of all being, the goal of all reality; the second is the salvific Son, the Word of God, the one whose life, death and resurrection expresses the Divinity's concern for humanity; and the third is the power of God, the one who continues Jesus' work, the one who proceeds from the Father and Son and so the one who gives new life to humanity.

            Other basic beliefs involve a well-developed doctrine of the Church or community of believers (ecclesiology) with a sacramental system (see worship below) and a mission to believes and non-believers, which focuses on establishing God's kingdom, either on earth or as preparation for a heavenly  kingdom ("may your kingdom come" as in the "Lord's Prayer").  Other beliefs focus on salvation as gift and challenge: gift or grace as a result of the Christ-event and requiring a human response in faith and action.  Other beliefs relate to the nature and role of God and to the human condition.  These various beliefs are encapsulated in a variety of creeds (see Nicene Creed in RW, 323), catechisms, charters and other formal decrees and pronouncements.  In recent years documents issued by the Vatican Council for Catholics and the World Council of Churches for Protestants have expressed these traditions' positions and beliefs vis-a-vis the modern world and its challenges.

            b. Community Traditions.  Christianity, of course, is represented by three principal traditions: (Roman) Catholicism (united to and ruled by the Pope), Orthodoxy (Eastern Christianity and its various communities headed by a number of Patriarchs), and Protestantism (Churches founded after and in the spirit of the Reformation).  See below for an extended treatment of all three.

            c. Worship.  Christianity presents a wide variety of liturgical traditions, usually related to its eucharistic celebration, i.e.  the commemoration of Jesus' last supper, as well as death and resurrection.  One could treat this subject at length by discussing the Jewish origin, the meaning, structure, and purpose of the Eucharist (or Mass) for Christians, whether its scriptural readings, preaching, prayer, and the communion service itself. Beyond this weekly celebration there also exists a liturgical, yearly cycle with rich symbolism and commemoration of the tradition's feasts, festivals, and saintly members.  See discussion also of the three principal traditions and their focus on worship or liturgy.

            d. Morality or Ethics.  Since we did not manage to reach this material in class, we will defer our comments to a later discussion of morality in religion more generally (see Sacred Quest, chapter 8).

            For an over view of the Christian movement, see further below.

            Study of Christianity.  Once again we will look at another scholar's summary of a major religious tradition in order to review what we have done in class and in reading our textbook in relation to Christianity.  The summary will consider Christianity's background in Judaism, its history, its scriptures, and especially its basic doctrines and practices as well as its major groups.  The summary is intended to clarify the major tenets of Christianity.

            Summary  Like Judaism from which it came, Christianity is grounded in history, not of a people over thousands
of years, but in the life, death, and resurrection of one man, Jesus Christ.  From that event issued the Christian church in three branches--Orthodox, Protestant, and Roman Catholic--more than 1,000,000,000 souls over all the world.  Although separated and divided, they are one in their allegiance to Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, and the world's calendar is fixed by his birth, Anno Domini" (AD), year of the Lord."

            Jesus' life, as recounted in the four Gospels of the New Testament, is here summarized.  He was born to Mary and Joseph, devout Jews in ancient Israel, then under Roman domination.  At about the age of thirty, after baptism by the prophetic figure, John the Baptist, he began to preach a message of encouragement in the light of the coming of the kingdom of God.  With a group of disciples he conducted a ministry of preaching and healing in Galilee, which brought him great popularity from the crowds and increasing hostility from the religious leaders.  During a brief withdrawal to a northeastern area of the country he accepted for himself and shared with his disciples the probability of his own death as the Messiah from God, and they made their way to Jerusalem.  There he was hailed as a spiritual deliverer.  He made an even greater call for repentance and commitment to himself, and he proclaimed the new age of righteousness which he somehow represented.  This brought him into open conflict with the religious authorities of the Jews.  After a final fellowship meal with his disciples Jesus went to pray in the Garden of Gethsemane.  There he was seized by agents of the religious leaders and taken to a hearing before the high priest and a council of elders.  The nature of their condemnation of him is not clear, but they handed him over to the Roman officials. The Roman procurator Pilate condemned Jesus to be crucified, Roman soldiers carried out the sentence, and he died after a few hours on the cross.  He was given a hasty burial before the Passover Eve, but on the third day, the day after the Sabbath, the tomb was found empty. Some of the disciples saw him and talked with him.

            The Christian faith is centered on Jesus and these events of his life, above all the resurrection from the dead.  His followers reassembled, and after a charismatic group experience on Pentecost began to proclaim Jesus as Lord and Savior, to baptize people in his name, and to celebrate a service of communion based on his example.  Coming out of these experiences, the Christian church, faced with persecution, grew very slowly at first.  But after one hundred years, the basic doctrinal, scriptural, and institutional forms of the faith had been established.  After enduring extreme persecution for another hundred years, the church won Roman recognition and shortly became the official religion.  As the western Roman Empire disintegrated, the church grew in influence.  Two main branches--the Eastern, centered in the new capital of the empire at Constantinople, and the Western under the bishop of Rome, who became the Roman Catholic pope--developed in different ways.  Between them they provided the religious substance of culture for Europe and parts of Asia.  The growth of Islam reduced the extent of the Orthodox Church, and in the West the Reformation in the sixteenth century split the church and produced the Protestant churches.  These are the three major, traditional, institutional divisions of the Christian church, although there are many groups which are hard to classify or which fall outside them.

            Christian scriptures include the Jewish Bible as the Old Testament, the record of the covenant between God and the Hebrews; and the New Testament, the record of the covenant between God and all who accept Jesus as Christ (Anointed), Lord, and Savior.

            Christian beliefs center on the life and teaching of Jesus, and have traditionally been expressed in creeds (from credo, "I believe") affirming the facts and the significance of Jesus' life and teachings. Disagreement over aspects of these basic doctrines has produced the separate organizations and differing practices of the major divisions of Christianity.  The  central and classic tradition, largely adhered to by all branches, holds that Jesus as the Son of God is both divine and human, that he suffered and died for the sins of humanity, and saved them by his death and resurrection.  Anyone who accepts him as Lord and Savior and is baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit will be saved, that is, freed from the hold of sin and death.  The formula of God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is known as the Trinity. The doctrine is the basic Christian belief in God as almighty and eternal Creator, whose son Jesus came as Savior, and whose Holy Spirit is active power of God in the world.  The three divisions differ about the exact meaning of salvation: precisely what the need is, just how Jesus Christ effects salvation, and the way in which the believer gains or receives it.  But they agree that there is a spiritual need in all humanity as somehow corrupted by sin, that the deliverance in Jesus Christ is only by the free grace or gift or mercy of God, and that anyone who confesses Christ and is baptized and incorporated into the church is redeemed.

            Christian worship, accordingly, focuses on these things.  Thankfulness and praise to God for all his gifts and goodness pervade regular, corporate worship on Sunday as the Lord's Day on which Christ was raised from the dead.  Many different ideas or aspects of Christian faith are expressed different ways.  Special days of the liturgical calendar celebrate occasions in the lire of Christ, from Christmas for his birth to easter for his resurrection.  The sacraments, sacred ceremonies in which physical acts and words symbolize invisible spiritual truths, include baptism once for each believer, and regular communion for all.

           The Roman Catholic Church is headed by the pope at Rome, who exercises supreme spiritual and juridical authority over all clergy and laity in the church of about half a billion members.  The celibate clergy are priests, custodians of the sacramental grace dispensed in the mass, who also direct the affairs of the churches.  Protestant churches are constituted first of all by the laity or believers, who maintain final control, although the forms of organization vary and some groups, Anglicans and others, have bishops.  Protestant clergy are essentially ministers to the people in the name of Christ.  Orthodox churches have an episcopal (bishop) structure, and find the spiritual life of Christ manifested through the worshipping congregation of the faithful.  In all branches of Christendom the ethical ideal of Christians is set by the example of Jesus. Christians are called to live like him, with faith in God, hope in the victory of God's goodness over evil and death, and love for others because of God's love for them (from W.J. Fellows, Religions East and West, pp. 376-78).

            In conclusion, I refer you to the brief summary of the contemporary Christian scene in your textbook (Religious World, pp. 355-57), as well as the following glossary of major terms.

            First we reviewed earlier materials: "Branches, Divisions, and Groups," then the "Importance of the Medieval Period & the Crusades." After this we proceded to the main topic of the day: the Reformation and Religion and Modernity

            a. The Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation and a Look at the Orthodox Churches.  In the interest of time I will attempt to present a few observations and facts about these periods but in summary form.  From the outset one must understand that as the Church and the civil powers gained more, joint power so did there occur profound corruption among the clergy and other Church authorities.  Also, centralization of papal power contributed further to abuses of power in the name of religion and thus often brought forth calls for reform in monastic and intellectual circles, as well as in disaffected communities, whether "Wycliffe in England, Huss in Bohemia, and Savonarola in Italy" (338) or even Erasmas of Rotterdam.  It was nonetheless the work of Martin Luther (c. 1500 AD) which had the most dramatic and far-ranging consequences on Christian history and theology (see RW 339f).  One can hardly overstress the importance of this giant, as well as the work of other fellow-reformers (Zwingli of Zurich, Calvin of Geneva or Henry the VIII of England).  Following this complex period of Church reform a different map of Europe and a vastly different religious situation emerged in the form of Lutheran, Dutch Reform, Anglican and other Churches, a considerable Anabaptist Movement, and other Protestant groups (RW 342-46).

            In class we spoke briefly of the Catholic Counter-Reformation (especially the Council of Trent in c. 1550 AD) and briefly also of the founding of the Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola in Spain of the 16th century (attendance at a Jesuit University requires at least minimal knowledge of these data). 

            b. Modernity or Religion and the post-Enlightenment World.  Beyond these important events one should at least remember that the Christian West underwent two important cultural periods, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, periods which left their mark on Western culture and Western Christendom as they moved into the modern period (and religion generally) and its great diversity of thought and practice. For a philosophical, cultural, and religious introduction to the modern period, 18th century and following, see RW 349-57.  First we focused on the important philosophical and scientific changes that occurred to usher, particularly the West, into the modern world, then we spoke briefly about the Protestant and Catholic reaction to these secularizing and modernizing tendencies.  We concluded by stressing the importance of a solid knowledge of religion and culture for future generations to learn to cope with modernity (awful examples can be given to illustrate the approaches to religion, whether fundamentalism, creationism, adversarial attitude to science in general).

            We will meet for a final class on Christianity to speak of its basic beliefs, practices, and moral tradition.  We will also have a brief quiz on terms, persons, and themes of importance for our study of Christianity.  The quiz will also address the films seen in class from the "Long Search" series, one on Protestantism and one on Catholicism.  Both films are available for viewing in the Library (the Media Center).  Look at your textbook to review terms, persons--the glossary more generally.

            A film on Catholicism--a real challenge!  The camera focuses first on Rome and an elaborate papal mass.  One sees the grandeur of the Vatican, magnificent Renaissance art, a flood of bishops, religious men and women, and the face of international Catholicism.  From the start one is confronted by the institution, the official Church and its highly structured organization, doctrine, and practice. Right after the papal ceremony the viewer is introduced to a Catholic family from Leeds, England and there begins a focus of the  camera lens on Catholicism as lived in an ordinary family.  Soon the film director leads the viewer to Leeds where one is introduced to the third focal point of the "search" (see title), namely the "Little Brothers of Jesus" and their small community, related to the work place in Leeds, particularly a brother who works in a dye factory--like every one else.

            In the quest for the meaning behind the official facade of the Roman Catholic Church, the film maker focuses on a discussion with a monk in Rome about faith and the Catholic, with the mother of the Leeds family about grace, faith and Catholic life, and then follows the Little Brothers to their novitiate house in Farlete in Spain.  While in Spain and before focusing finally on the Little Brothers and their "life in the desert" (see title), the viewer is treated to a pilgrimage to Montserrat to show that Catholicism involves much more than the touch points of the title, for Catholics have pious devotions, make pilgrimages, enjoy fine church music, etc.  There is also here a discussion with a retreat master at Montserrat about prayer and meditation, i.e., the inner spiritual life.

            The focus of the film finally is the desert and the life of dedication to Christ, to prayer, and to community--here one follows the Little Brothers in their daily lives and especially "in the desert."  Catholicism is Rome and its complex institutions, its international character, its theological doctrine, moral practice and high liturgy, but it is also the commitment of its members to family life and Christian living in the work place. Yet despite all this complexity and formal facade there also is in Catholicism a search for the inner self and its commitment to God through Christ--symbolically expressed by the theme of the desert.

          Again, the film can also be viewed in the Media Center in the Library.  Also see earlier [in this "observation"on Eastern Religions] for more general comments on "The Long Search" series and its various films.

             Reminder:  Paper due March 20! (3/8/06) --> see observations for 2/20/06 (paper topics).

            At this point we begin our study of another monotheistic tradition, that of Christianity.  On the one hand it will be far more familiar to you than the other religious traditions seen so far, but somewhat similar to that of Judaism.  You will be familiar with much of the vocabulary, the themes, and the story we will be examining.  But on the other hand, depending on your exposure to the broad sweep of this tradition (after all there are Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists, Catholics, and many other less familiar Christian groups) and depending on your acquaintance with Christian concepts and tradition (beyond the dos and don'ts of many pious church-goers), you may find a great deal in Christian belief and practice which is unfamiliar to you and perhaps not to your liking or even inconsistent with your beliefs. Studying one's own tradition is both enjoyable and frustrating. But be it said from the outset, this is not an exercise in defending your beliefs nor does this study relate to your being a "believer" or a "practicing" member of a Christian group.  This is intended to be an academic study of  Christianity, just as was our study of the other traditions seen thus far.  We will study about Christian beginnings, about the Christian Scriptures, and, in a historical context, about the developing beliefs and practices of the Christian tradition.  We will focus somewhat on the evolution of various Christian groups whether Catholic, Orthodox, or the large variety of Protestant communities.

            What then is Christianity?  We might begin by offering several important elements for consideration before we turn to the tradition's beginnings.  We might describe this movement, named after Jesus' faith title "Christ" (or Messiah), i.e. "Christianity," as a movement which seeks to establish God's kingdom, beginning on earth and continuing in the afterlife.  It is like Judaism in this instance; indeed, it derives from Jewish tradition, for its founder was Jewish as were its early members --an analogous situation exists regarding the relationship of Buddhism to Hinduism.  Many of Christianity's goals and themes are identical or similar to those of Judaism, but it varies principally in insisting that God employs an essential agent to initiate and to achieve this kingdom, namely, Jesus of Nazareth who is proclaimed God's Messiah, Son, and Savior.  In describing this movement we would have to insist that this agent founded a community of believers, the church, which now, through Jesus' name and with his assistance, seeks to transform the world into a godly kingdom.  Part of this perspective includes a belief in Jesus' words as Scripture, belief in the Holy Spirit which he sends and gives, and belief in his presence in the world.  Finally, important also for Christian faith is belief that God is one (monotheism--the one) in three persons (the many), the Trinity: i.e., three persons (Father, Son and Spirit) in one Godhead.

            Beginnings.  Here too we will deal with several important factors: the movement's origin and context within Judaism, Jesus the central figure of the new movement, and the community of believers and its early development.

            a. Judaism as the background and source of the Jesus movement.  Christianity grew out of and depended heavily, at least initially, upon Judaism and its tradition.  Jesus spoke of the God of the covenant, of father Abraham, worshipped and lived as a Jew, as did his early disciples.  The Jesus movement borrowed and built upon the Jewish liturgy, whether for its feasts or its central eucharistic celebration (the mass or eucharistic meal is a modified synagogue service).  Christianity in effect took over from Judaism its notion of God, covenant, and kingdom.  It also appropriated its Scriptures as the first part of its own Bible.  Much more could be said on this topic but suffice it to say that Christianity, especially in its earliest form, is an outgrowth of Judaism.

            b. The focus and indeed centerpiece of the Christian tradition is the figure of Jesus of Nazareth, a person known to believer and non-believer through the gospels.  The first three gospels offer the most historically reliable information about him but they too are faith documents, lives of the Master written by and for believers at various stages of the community' development and for specific communities and specific purposes. What a modern reader or researcher can safely conclude about Jesus' life is the following:
                    Jesus was born in Bethlehem, during the reign of Herod the Great (c. 4 BC) and raised in Nazareth. 
                    He began his ministry in the Jordan River area in conjunction with John Baptist, spent most of his
                    years of ministry in Galilee, where he preached (primarily in parables), gathered an inner circle of
                    disciples, and healed many.  He spent some time in Jerusalem where he celebrated his last Passover
                    (Last Supper) with his followers.  Further, he taught in the City, aroused the opposition of the religi-
                    ous authorities, and was brought to trial before the Roman Procurator (Pontius Pilate), who con-
                    demned him to death by crucifixion.  A few days afterward (3) he was said to be alive and to have
                    been seen by some of his followers
From and around this basic life-schema, gospel writers constructed relatively long, complex documents (the gospels) for the community's instruction and use.  Thus the Christian movement focused its faith, its beliefs, and its practice around the person of Jesus of Nazareth.  What follows was only partly seen in class.

            c. The early community seemingly focused on Jesus' death and resurrection as the central elements of the growing movement.  Its members confessed Jesus as Messiah or Christ, the one sent by God to address the issues of God's lordship and human salvation.  It is in this context that there developed the important area of theology, called Christology (study of who Jesus Christ is and what his function is in God's plan).  Thus Christianity is a belief in Jesus as God's agent, one initially seen as a human agent chosen and sent by God but increasingly as one who has an intimate relationship to the Father and eventually one declared: to have pre-existed, to have become human, to have died and been raised by God, to have been enthroned in glory at God's right hand, and finally is expected to return at the endtime as Son of Man.  Thus Christian belief develops from a low to higher and eventually to a pre-existent Christology (council of Nicaea in 325).

            The community itself spread throughout Palestine, the Near East, and the Mediterranean basin.  This initially small movement began as a group of Aramaic-speaking Jewish followers of Jesus in the areas of Judaea and Galilee.  In quick succession this original body of Jewish-Christian disciples reached out to and spread among Greek-speaking Jews of the Diaspora as well (indeed Paul would be a good example of this evolution).  These latter were Jews who lived outside of Palestine, whose language was now the Greek of the Greco-Roman cities in which they lived.  One can only hint at the important cultural transformation that occurred as  the community's Aramaic and Jewish (Eastern) traditions more generally spread into and were adopted in the Greek world and its Western culture.  Finally, a third stage developed during which the vast majority of members of an ever-increasing movement were Gentile (not Jews).  Indeed, the well-known preacher, Paul of Tarsus, was a major figure in the early years of the opening of the Jesus movement to Gentile or non-Jewish members.  With this development Christianity became increasingly more Western in thought and culture and with time this movement became both Greek in the East and Latin in the West as the movement spread among the Jewish and non-Jewish populations of the Roman Empire and beyond.  It is during the early part of this period, c. 45-125, that the New Testament or Christian group of books were written.

            d. Finally, a few words should be addressed to the period of the community's development before its official acceptance, first as a tolerated religion in the Empire and then under Constantine as the religion of the Emperor and then of the Empire.  This is a period of intellectual development (the writers of the period are referred to as the "Apostolic Fathers"), of the formation of the New Testament list of books, and especially of Christianity's confrontation with the pagan world.  Originally, scholars and believers alike (see RW, 311f) described the period as one of persecution (following the lead of Church historians such as Eusebius of Caesarea) but in recent years scholars of Roman history as well as early church history speak instead of a period of prosecution whereby suspect movements were rather routinely banned or severely limited in legal and social terms.  The Christian movement did experience sporadic persecution (e.g., under Nero in Rome) but really encountered great resistance and per

             We will turn our attention, after the Mardi Gras break, to Christianity's Bible, especially the NewTestament, and to its early beliefs and practices.

Further Comments on Modern Judaism and Its Practice

            "Jewish Life.  Let us examine some of the specifics of Jewish life.  It should be remembered always that there are various degrees of observance, and various attitudes toward the importance of, for example, the dietary laws and strictness of Sabbath-keeping.  The differences are not only between the serious and the lax; Jews of equal inner commitment, insofar as this can be gauged, may place the emphasis on different strands of the tradition.  (Differences of these kind are, of course, found between the various traditions of all major religions.)

            "But throughout all of Jewish life a special chord reverberates.  It is made up of a tradition of respect for education, awareness of history, and a sense of being an often persecuted minority group, as well as the specific festivals, customs, and religious rites of Judaism.  The close family and community life of Judaism reflects this tone, through whichever of several possible styles of Jewish life it is expressed.  There is always some sense of Jewish identity, too; it has often been commented that every Jew, however nonpracticing and secularized, knows that he or she is a Jew.

            "The sociological bedrock of Jewish life is the family.  With only very few possible exceptions, such as the Prophet Jeremiah and perhaps the Essene communities of Hellenistic times, religious celibacy has had no place in Judaism. One of the most consistent themes of all Jewish history, after the theme of being a specially called-out covenant people, is marriage and the procreation of children: a fundamental religious duty for the wisest and holiest rabbi as well as any other Jew.  It is not a concession to the weakness of the flesh, but a sacred as well as a joyful way of life and a part of the covenant:
                The whole world depends on the holiness of the union between man and woman, for the world was
                created for the sake of God's glory and the essential revelation of His glory comes through the increase
                of mankind.  Man must therefore sanctify himself in order to bring to the world holy people through
                whom God's glory will be increased.... [Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav--see note].

            "It is in the family, then, that religious observances begin.  The Sabbath, festivals, and the dietary rules all involve, especially in Orthodox tradition, much more that is done at home than in the synagogue with the community as a whole--the Sabbath meal and prayers, holiday blessings and customs like Hanuka lights and the Passover meal in which the head of the family is the religious leader, the hours spent preparing food according to religious regulation.  Beside this, the synagogue is not where religion "happens" so much as where one receives instruction and inspiration to make it happen in its true locus.  But under the changed conditions of modern life the tendency, especially in the more liberal traditions, is to express Jewish identity more through synagogue, temple, or community participation and less through the complicated and time-consuming home actions in their traditional forms.  Even so, it must be emphasized that the home can still be a place where Jewish identity in its moral and cultural meaning is learned and deeply felt.

            "The cornerstone of Jewish practice is the observance of the Sabbath.  This period of twenty-four hours from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday commemorates the Lord's day of rest after the work of creation, and is intended for the rest and refreshment of both body and soul.  On it no work is done, and there is feast and celebration and nourishment for the body and mind and soul at the table and the synagogue.  Far from being an onerous burden or a time of negative prohibition, the classical Jewish literature sees the Sabbath as a bountiful gift to God's people, as a lovely bride to be welcomed with eager love.

            "Traditional Sabbath observance begins with concluding one's ordinary business, bathing, and putting on fresh garments reserved for that festive day on Friday afternoon.  After sundown, the previously prepared Sabbath meal is eaten, with traditional Sabbath dishes, and prayers and blessings over the food, and the full cup of wine.

            "On the next day there is public worship in the morning and late afternoon.  Synagogue or temple worship consists basically of reading from the Torah and the other Scriptures, prayers and chants.  But the atmosphere of the worship will vary considerably from one tradition to another.  In Orthodox synagogues, men and women will be on separate sides; the liturgy will be in Hebrew; and the preservation of many ornate ritual customs, as well as in some cases a certain Hasidic exuberance expressed, perhaps, in swaying or dancing to the music, will suggest that this is the Judaism most in continuity with that of old world Europe.  In Reform temples, the service will be plain and dignified, with more emphasis on the sermon.  Conservative synagogues will follow a middle course.  However, Reform and Conservative
worship, like that of some once-staid Christian churches, is today in a new way discovering the heritage of lively music, dance, and chant, especially in services for young people.

            "The most important object in any Jewish place of worship is the Torah, the scroll of the law, in its large ornamented box at the front of the hall.  A lamp continually burns before it.  Opening the door and curtains in front of the Torah, and finally removing it from the case for reverent reading, are major actions in the drama of the service.

            "Festivals.  Besides the regular Sabbath worship, the Jewish year is marked by several festivals.   Although not really as important as the weekly celebration of the Sabbath--only the Sabbath is mentioned in the Ten  Commandments--many Jews today observe something of the "High Holy Days" (Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur) and the Passover if nothing else.  The holidays can be divided into three groups.  Because they follow the Jewish lunar calendar, the dates (like that of the Christian Easter) vary from year to year.

            "First are the "High Holy Days" or "Days of Awe," which come in the autumn.  Rosh Hashana, literally "Head of the Year" is kept as the anniversary of the creation and is the Jewish New Year's Day.  Then, after a sacred season of ten days for repentance, is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.  It is said to be the day when God reckons up the sins of each person for the previous year and accordingly sets his or her fate for the coming year; this is only a metaphor, of course, but it sets the tone of Yom Kippur, a day when each person in his or her heart assesses guilt and determines how to amend his or her life.  The customs of the day create a backdrop for this inward strife and turning; fasting for twenty-four hours and a daylong synagogue service full of haunting, dirgelike music and corporate confessions.

            "Three happier festivals are basically grounded in the agricultural society of ancient Israel, and fit the seasonal cycle of all archaic agricultural religion, yet also have meaning as commemorating the might acts of God for Israel recorded in the Bible; they orient the believer to God's work both in nature and in history.  These are the Passover in the spring, Shavuot in late spring or early summer, and Sukkot in autumn.

            "The Passover, or Pesah, recalls the hurried meal that the Israelites enslaved in Egypt ate before leaving for the great events of the Exodus, the parting of the Red Sea and the  receiving of the law at Sinai, and the entry into the Promised Land.  An impressive family rite, the Passover meal, with its traditional foods (the paschal lamb, which is not actually eaten but is like a sacrifice, unleavened bread, roasted egg, vegetable, bitter herbs, wine, and so forth) and the question and answers between the youngest son and father concerning the meaning of  the symbols, is deeply loved in Jewish homes, and is the Jewish holiday best known to Christians because of its association with the death of Jesus.

            "Shavuot, or Pentecost, seven weeks after Passover, was anciently a harvest festival for grain, and is also commemorated as the anniversary of the giving of the law on Mount Sinai.  Traditional Jews mark it by all-night study of the Torah, and it is a customary time for religious confirmation and graduation exercises.

            "Bright and colorful Sukkot is the autumn harvest festival for fruit and vegetables. When possible, "booths" are set up on lawns and in temples, gaily decorated with apples, pomegranates, gourds, corn, and the like.  The booths are covered with straw, boughs, or palm fronds, but with spaces so one can see the stars.  People eat, study, and sometimes sleep in them; like so much of Judaism, it is the sort of religious rite that children find exciting and unforgettable.

            "Finally, there are several minor holy days.  Only two of the best known will be cited, Purim and Hanuka.

            "Purim, in February or March, commemorates the story recounted in the Book of Esther; how the Jews were saved from the wicked designs of Haman, chief minister of the Persian king, by Esther the queen and her father Mordecai.  Like Mardi Gras or carnival in Latin countries, which comes at approximately the same time, Purim is the time when religion gives sanction to the role of comedy, buffoonery, and "letting go" in human life.  Tradition says one may drink until one cannot tell the difference between "Blessed be Mordecai" and "Cursed be Haman."  During the reading of the story in the synagogue, children gleefully make tremendous racket with noisemakers whenever the name Haman is spoken.  Strolling players and schoolchildren perform farces in which solemn rabbis and elders might be spoofed
most of all.

            "Hanuka comes at about the time of the Christian Christmas and has become popular in America partly as a result of this association.  It commemorates the rededication of the temple in Jerusalem in 165 B.C. after rebels led by the House of Maccabee had defeated the Seleucid Greek rulers (placed by Alexander the Great nearly two centuries earlier), who had lately tried to convert the Jewish people and the temple to pagan worship.  The event is too late even to have been included in the Jewish Bible, although the Books of Maccabees do appear in the Roman Catholic Bible and the "Apocrypha" of some Protestant versions.  The celebration is simple and is carried out in the home.   An eight-branch menorah, or candlestick, is lit, and a Hanuka song sung, over an eight-day period.  On the first night cakes and gifts are presented to the children.

            "Jewish boys undergo certain rites of passage: circumcision, performed as a religious act, at eight days; Bar Mitzvah, when the boy reads from the Hebrew Scriptures and begins the entry into manhood.  In America, the Bar Mitzvah has often become the occasion for gala celebrations; in the Reform tradition, and to some extent in the Conservative tradition, a parallel festival for girls has been introduced. Reform Judaism also has a confirmation rite for young people of high school age, when commitment to the faith is expressed.

            "The Jewish dietary laws have had an immense role over the centuries in keeping the faith alive and its people together, for rules of food preparation so exacting make it almost a practical necessity that if they are to be kept one must eat with, and therefore live in and marry within, his or her own community.  Today, however, their observance varies; some follow them minutely, some give them only token honor such as refusal to eat pork, some feel they are entirely irrelevant to the modern world and observe them not at all.

            "No restrictions govern food from plants; the law deals only with killing and eating conscious life.  The basic rules are that animals eaten must have a split hoof and chew the cud; this includes cattle and sheep but excludes a vast swarm: swine, reptiles, elephants, monkeys, horses, and all carnivorous beasts, among others.  Of sea creatures, only those with fins and scales may be taken; of aerial creatures, birds of prey and insects are forbidden.  Furthermore, meat must be slaughtered and prepared in special ways to be "kosher," or edible by those keeping the dietary rules,  The rules also forbid the eating of meat and dairy products together, and even expects that separate pots and plates will be used for them; the keeping of two sets of dishes (and a third for Passover) is a sign of a quite traditional Jewish home.

            "The tradition requires men to pray morning and evening and to give time to Torah study, although it never puts obligations on women that must be met at particular times save the purifications connected with the female cycle.  Two styles of life in relation to God, the male dealing with word and schedule, the female with food preparation and home, are encompassed in Judaism.  Perhaps this gives a clue to the fundamental experience of Judaism.  This ancient faith is not primarily oriented toward doctrine as its basis; one finds that ideas about God and such matters as the afterlife vary immensely, and that even many fairly orthodox observants profess to be skeptical or uninterested in such matters.  Yet Judaism continues to be intensely felt as a way of life here and now.

            "The reason maybe that it is oriented toward time and history, rather than eternal ideas, as the source of human meaning and obligation.  The law is important because it come out of past history and now controls present time and makes it holy through demands on how it is spent and how biological events in time are sanctified.  In turn the Jewish hope of salvation is chiefly oriented toward future time.  The tradition affirms that God will, in his time, send the Messiah, a hero heir to the greatest kings and prophets of old but greater than they, and in his day and through his work all evils on the earth will be rectified, and an era of joy will be initiated.  Some interpret this hope literally, others figuratively, in terms of a "Messianic Age."  For some, Zionism and the building up of the nation of Israel had messianic overtones.

            "But overall, Judaism is a religion whose centers of value are in time: tradition out of the past and hope for the future.  We are beings in time and history, and are to look in these directions first, rather than up and down, to find what we need most to know and believe to live this human life as it is meant to be lived" (from R.S. Ellwood, An Introduction to the Religious Life of Mankind, 265-70).

            b. A Summary

            A brief discussion of Judaism in the form of a summary will be helpful as a review of our class material.  Much is made, in the following summary, of Israel's story or the biblical story.  Basically this is an attempt to describe Israel's relationship to God from Abraham and the patriarchs to Moses and life in the land of Palestine.  Major themes and concerns are emphasized, e.g., covenant, land, Torah, worship, etc.

            "The line of Western religion is set by Judaism for the Jewish experience of God as recorded in the Bible and extended in Christianity became characteristic of Western religion and culture.  Judaism is the religion of the people or culture, the Jews, and is not understandable apart from them: They count themselves the people of God, and Judaism is simply the religion of these people.  The relation between the people and the faith is unique, in that the faith unfolds as a process of interaction between God and the people.  For this reason their own history is at the same time the history of the religion, and its beliefs and practices come out of their experience, and thus their history.  The Bible as the record of this relation between God and the Jews is, therefore, not simply a record of past events but gives the substance and meaning of the present faith.

            "The story begins with God, because in Western Biblical religions (including Islam in that list because of its Biblical roots, although it has its own Qur'an), nothing comes before God.  When God speaks, things happen, creation and other prehistoric events first.  After that, God spoke to Abraham, the progenitor, for the call or word of God is always primary at every crucial epoch of Israel's history.  Certain other recurrent themes also appear at the outset.  God promised to bless Abraham and through him all people---"promise" is a key word.  Abraham entered into a covenant or agreement with God--"covenant" is another central Biblical category.  Abraham led the tribe into Canaan, and after him came Isaac and his son Jacob (renamed Israel), whose sons were progenitors of the twelve tribes.  When famine came they were saved by Joseph, another son, who ruled under the Pharaoh in Egypt, where they migrated.  Centuries passed, and they were saved again, under the leadership of Moses, who led them out of slavery in Egypt.  Moses received for them God's covenant, binding them to serve him as their one and only God, and in return promising them blessings as his chosen people. Back in their "promised land," they nevertheless had to fight for it, while spiritually the Jewish people struggled to learn and practice the way of faith in one God and his Law.

            "Organized as a kingdom, their greatest king was David, who ever after was looked back to as the ideal king and the model of the future king, the Messiah, who will come to unite all the world under one God.  Then the kingdom was divided.  First the northern , then the southern divisions were conquered, the holy city of Jerusalem was lost, and the Jews were exiled.  But later they returned, rebuilt their temple and city wall, and reestablished their Laws and ways.  Their prophets taught them deeper truths and meaning of the Law and showed them that one God meant one Law for all the world.  The Jews were obliged to teach that one Law to all people, thus making one the divided world.  When the Roman Empire conquered them they rebelled; Jerusalem and the temple were again destroyed, and henceforth they lived by the Torah--the Law and the book--and not by temple and altar.  Most of them were scattered into Asia, Africa, Europe where they often suffered from prejudice and persecution, so that they turned inward into their own communities.  Only in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries did they finally gain a measure of freedom and merge with other peoples in Europe and America.  Modern times have seen the most traumatic event of all, the Holocaust or death of 6,000,000 Jews under Hitler and the Nazis, and the dramatic reestablishment and military victories of the state of Israel.  Out of this great saga came the sacred books of the Jews and their beliefs and practices.  The Bible is the one great book, but there are also interpretations of and commentaries on the Torah, as well as philosophical works.

            "The beliefs of Judaism came out of the Jews' encounters with God and thus center in their God as the one, almighty Creator and Lord of all things and beings; the world and all in it are, therefore, creatures, limited and dependent on God, and subject to his laws.  As the sovereign Lord he is sacred and unapproachable, "awful" in the proper meaning of that word, and as Lawgiver he is righteous.  Yet he speaks, to Israel first of all, and through them to all people, giving them his law for guidance.  He leads them toward the fulfillment of his purposes and promises for Israel in a truly holy order, under the Messiah in the Messianic Age.

            "The people of Israel respond to the call of God in group or communal worship, which sets the pattern for the group or public worship characteristic of Western religion.  A famous rabbi said, "The catechism of the Jew is his calendar."  He meant that it is in observance of the Jewish holy days, which follow a liturgical calendar, that the Jew finds and expresses his faith.  Three such festivals, two in the spring and one in the fall, are based on commemorations of Jewish victories, while the two most solemn observances, in the early autumn, are New Year and Day of Atonement.  But it is the Sabbath, the regular weekly day of rest and prayer in the home and temple on Sabbath Eve (Friday night) and Day, which is the heart of Jewish piety.  Special occasions such as weddings, funerals, and so on, have, of course, their distinctive Jewish observances.

            "Modern institutionalized Judaism in Western countries is divided into three principal groups, ranging in order from the most conservative to liberal: Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism.  Although they differ in their views of the forms which should be followed in the modern world, they all follow the same basic calendar of worship and share the same fundamental beliefs.  Thus all Jews believe that the Torah or Law gives the basic commandments, which have been explained in the Talmud, and are interpreted for the modern age by the rabbi in the synagogue or temple.  But all Jews can and should themselves study the Torah in order to know how to observe it.  For the Law is the good way of God for all people, and those who practice it will be blessed, as God promised Abraham long ago. Above all, it is through the Torah that the people of God are joined to God, and their relationship to God is the most important thing for the people of the Jews who collectively and individually constitute Judaism.  Through them and their Bible the Law of God is proclaimed to all human beings" (from W.J. Fellows, Religions East and West, pp. 284-86).

            In conclusion, I refer you to the brief summary of Judaism in your textbook (Religions World, pp. 295-97), as well as the following glossary of major terms.

            In our study of Judaism we have considered first the "story of Judaism," that is, the story that Jewish tradition itself tells of its beginnings and the ups and downs of its relation to God.  This is the biblical story contained in its Scriptures--less a history and more an account of the people's convenantal relation to Yahweh, its God.  Secondly, we spent some time looking at the tradition's Bible, the Hebrew Scriptures, consisting of three parts: the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings.  In relation to these we then proceeded to examine the tradition's basic (biblical) beliefs concerning God and concerning God's creation, especially the human race.  Here we focused on the main concepts that govern Jewish tradition, whether these are found in the Shema (biblical citation which serves to express Israel's belief in the one God) or in the Torah and Judaism's other sacred literature.  There remains thirdly to focus on the practice that emerges from this religious tradition, for not only do believers accept or confess certain concepts, tenets or doctrines, but they also put these into practice either through religious activity (ritual or worship) or through standard or moral norms and action (morality or ethics).

            a. The Ritual Practice of Israel.  When speaking of Jewish ritual one is quickly led to conclude that, in historical terms, there existed two basic approaches to worship, the first centered, in earlier times, on the temple and its sacrificial system.  From early times, around the beginnings of the Davidic dynasty (Jewish tradition credits David's son Solomon with the building of the first temple in Jerusalem), Jewish worship had centered on temple ritual and its complex ritual laws for sacrifice, offering, and worship, regulations which were later codified in the Books of Exodus and Leviticus.  As might be expected there were sacrifices and associated rituals for a variety of reasons and occasions, whether burnt and peace sacrifices or sin and guilt offerings.  The rituals were no doubt inherited from Israel's pastoral heritage (usually described as referring to the patriarchal, Mosaic, and pre-monarchic periods), when Israel's liturgy was centered on a movable tabernacle that accompanied the people in its movements.

            These temple offerings were supplemented by other animal and agricultural offerings of first fruits, tithing, and temple taxes.  At a very early stage Jewish rituals included Sabbath observance, a tradition reflected in the first creation account (see Genesis 1 where God creates the world in six days and rests on the seventh).  There begins at various periods during biblical times a series of important festivals and temple rituals such as the New Year festival and Passover.

            Toward the end of the first period, the time of the Babylonian exile, there arises, out of necessity, an alternative to temple activity in what will develop as the synagogue or house of worship and study.  This institution will at first supplement then will replace the temple and its sacrificial system.  It is at this time that there begins also a more focused synagogue service, which was centered, especially after the fall of the second temple in 70 AD under the Romans, on the Torah scroll and the reading of the Hebrew Scriptures.  The synagogue and its services rather than temple sacrifice became the center of Jewish worship, whether reading, sermons, singing and by extension study of the Torah.  These rituals were supplemented by religious activity and ceremonies centered in the home, again: Sabbath observance with its blessings and meal and associated synagogue service. In the home and the work place Jews also observed kosher laws that concern diet and dress--these vary of course as one considers more conservative and more liberal Jewish groups.

            Finally, a few words should be said about Jewish festivals and holy seasons.  It is at this point that the line quoted earlier form R. Hirsch is most appropriate: "The catechism of the Jew is his calendar" (see day 1). Through its feasts and festivals Israel relives its history and especially its covenantal relationship with God, whether beginning with the high holy days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, continuing with the crucial celebration of Passover (celebrating the liberation from slavery in Egypt), and later including the feast of Pentecost (commemorating harvest and receiving of the Torah).  Through these Israel commemorates its beginnings, forgiveness, covenant and in particular its relationship to God.

            Finally, we should mention the Jewish rites of passage, especially circumcision of young boys, the naming of children, the Bar and Bat Mitzvahs of young teen agers and later adult rituals.

            b. Moral Practices or Ethics and Society. (This part was only briefly mentioned in class--see handout).  Israel's moral standards are based on its covenantal relationship to God, perhaps summarized in the two great commands: love of God absolutely and completely (you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and all your soul...) and of the neighbor without qualification (you shall love your neighbor as yourself).  For the Jew these commandments are a synthesis of the great Law of/for the ages, the Torah. Earlier in its history Israel had dealt with law codes which had sought the common good (whether the law of the talion or those concerning human and property rights) but it saw in the Torah the revelation of God the legislator and so the Torah was viewed as absolute, universal, revealed, and humane.  In the Torah and its stipulations was to be found the basis for Jewish moral practice.  Best known among the commands of the Torah are the 10 commandments found in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 (see RW 282 and class handout).

            Beyond this we might, as does your text book, summarize the ethical or moral emphasis of the Jewish tradition as focusing on four principal areas: 1) justice and righteousness (i.e., the importance of the relation that exists between God's holy community and its members' responsibility for its fellow believers), 2) the sanctity of life (i.e., a belief that God the creator made every thing good, that life is sacred, and that humanity has been made in God's image), 3) liberation from bondage and persecution (i.e., a focus on the great Exodus theme as a key concept of Jewish morality--freedom as a goal of ethical thinking and action), and 4) social responsibility (i.e., a restatement of the two great commandments stated earlier and the conclusion that love of God demands the love of neighbor as well).

            Religion, in this case Jewish tradition, involves both a body of beliefs or tenets and the resulting liturgical and moral activity which flows from these beliefs; i.e., religion involves both doctrine (beliefs) and religious practice (the "doing" of religion).

            Introduction to Israel's Sacred Books.  The story of the Hebrew Bible and its growth makes for fascinating reading and calls for much discussion, since these books are viewed either minimally as Sacred Scripture (books with a mystical origin and power or, at least, works that contain God's revelation to and relationship with Israel) or as an extensive library presenting Israel's developing theology and history.  In the first case one speaks of sacred books which address Israel's origins, basic beliefs and revelation from God, or in the second one recognizes in these works a challenging, theological vision of world history and ideology as created by the people of Israel.

            The Hebrew Bible.  The Hebrew Scriptures consist of a threefold collection.  The "first" of these is the Torah (variously called the "five books of Moses" or the Pentateuch), consisting of the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  These present the Jewish story beginning with the creation accounts, including the period of the patriarchs, to the death of Moses prior to the people's entry in the holy land.  This collection is seen as containing the central beliefs of Jewish tradition, particularly Exodus and Deuteronomy, both of which focus on the revelation of Sinai.  Modern scholarship sees in these five books the culminating process of the joining together of four principal narrative and historical traditions: the Yahwish (the J tradition representing the ninth century epic tradition of the Davidic/Southern monarchy), the Elohist (the E tradition preserving the covenantal traditions of the Northern kingdom), the Priestly tradition (the P tradition or the extensive priestly, legal, and narrative editorial work of the temple priestly school) and the Deuteronomist tradition (the lead document from the Deuteronomist historians [D] of the late monarchic period).  It is concluded that the present collection called the Pentateuch was probably the result, after successive stages of editing, of post-exilic work of priestly compilers and editors.  This complex collection then has become the central, foundational document of Jewish tradition and belief.

           The "second" group of biblical texts is the collection of "the Prophets," a twofold series of historical works (called the "Former Prophets": Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings) and the classical prophets (called the "Latter Prophets": from Isaiah to the Twelve Minor Prophets).  This collection too has a long history ranging from the activity of the prophetic figure behind the tradition, the editing of that prophet's utterances, oracles, and, in many cases, biographical narratives.  This editing is usually the exilic and post-exilic work of the prophet's disciples or other members of various prophetic guilds.

       Note on the Prophetic Movement & the Prophets.  "Also of great significance was the work of the prophets
                    of Israel, key figures who left an indelible mark on the nation.  The movement began as early as 1050
                    B.C.E. under another outstanding leader, Samuel.  Bands of ecstatic prophets began to appear who
                    exhibited a highly charged enthusiasm....From these bands of prophets, individuals began to act in-
                    dependently from the group.  Many began to speak more and more as a voice of conscience, pointing
                    out evils in society and calling for reform.  Finally, about 750 B.C.E. prophetic messages began to be
                    recorded in written form, sometimes by the prophets themselves, sometimes by scribes, and on other
                    occasions by disciples of the prophets.  There were still bands of professional prophets connected with
                    shrines or royal thrones, but the ones who most influenced their period were the classical or writing
                    prophets.  Between 750 and 400 B.C.E. a total of twelve prophets left a heritage in brief books con-
                    nected with their utterances.  Another three left a heritage that developed into longer prophetic works.
                    Although a roll call of the prophets would be beyond the scope of our study here, the accompanying
                    timeline [p. 261] gives a historical context to these creative individuals" (RW, p. 260).

            The last, ""third" group of texts that forms part of the Hebrew Bible is a diverse collection (called the "Writings") of works of wisdom, poetry, prayer, late history or historical records.

            "Although a great deal of diversity is evident, there is also a dynamic unity present, making the Hebrew
                    Scriptures a living and dynamic compilation of books....The Hebrew concept of history gives a linear
                    dimension that unifies the material.  This is coupled with the ongoing sense of revelation by the God
                    who is constantly concerned about revealing himself and his will.  The deep sense of election of the
                    Jewish people as a chosen people forms the third essential element of this unity.  Thus, history, reve-
                    lation, and response by a chosen people link together the many diverse components of the various
                    books" (RW, 265-66).

            Other Important Jewish Works--see RW, pp. 268-70 on the Mishnah, Talmud, and Tosefta.

            Important Biblical Concepts.  One should begin here by emphasizing the Jewish use of Deut 6:4-9 as the tradition's central creed ("Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is One") and proceed to underscore the basic beliefs that flow from Israel's profession of faith and absolute trust in the one God and the consequent priority of the believer's devotion to God and commitment to make God's revelation known to future generations.

            The revelation about which we speak focuses on God on the one hand and on God's creation, particularly the human being, on the other.  1) Focus on Monotheism.  There is an uncompromising stress, after a lengthy process of refinement of the concept, on the doctrine of monotheism.  From a belief in many gods (polytheism) to the exclusive allegiance by the Israelites to Israel's God, Yahweh, the God of the Fathers (henotheism), there evolved a focused notion of a transcendent being who is lord of heaven and earth and of history itself (monotheism).  This God is seen as holy, as demanding, as loving, and as master of the universe (see the consequent use of imagery: a burning bush, holy ground, fire/light/cloud/danger as marking the presence of the Awesome Other).  This God is creator, ruler, and judge of the universe.  This is the God of Abraham who in the Yahwist story creates humans from clay and breath and places them in a paradise of delight (Genesis chapter 2) but who, later in the Priestly tradition, is said to create the world in six days (each object of creation is qualified as "good" and the human as "very good"--see Genesis chapter 1).   Thus God is a being who speaks to and acts on behalf of humanity; this speech and relationship is classified as revelation which, in written form, becomes the Sacred Scriptures of the tradition.  Of course, central to this revelation, indeed, to this relationship between God and Israel is what the Jewish writers of the various traditions characterize as the covenant between Yahweh and Israel, viewed in contemporary, political terms, as a treaty between God the suzerain and Israel the vassal.  God agrees to be Israel's God but Israel must promise to be God's people--to this treaty there are added blessings, curses, and commandments.  For the most part Jewish theology, not only in the biblical tradition but also over the ages, becomes a dialogue between covenant partners--even when the latter is less than faithful, whether in its worship of other gods (see the golden calf episode), the flirting with the foreign policy of pagan superpowers, or the violation of God's Torah or covenantal teaching (especially as expressed in the commandments of Jewish tradition).

            2) On the other hand, the revelation of Sinai and of the Jewish Bible more generally focuses equally upon the apex of God's creation the human being--see Psalm 8 for a sublime statement that God created humans as a "little lower than God" and is indeed "mindful of them" and put them in charge of creation (vv. 4-8--see the important command at the end of the creation story that humans are to "have dominion over" God's creation--Gen 1:28).  Human beings, contrary to most of the ancient world's view, are seen as noble creatures of a good God, creatures belonging to both the physical and spiritual worlds, creatures for whom God cares and with whom, through Abraham's descendants, a covenant is made and who become God's chosen people. Thus the basic concepts of Israel's tradition focus on God and humanity, the God of history and the history of God's people.  For further discussion of the tradition's basic biblical, and indeed theological concepts, see RW, 270-74.

            As we move in our study of  "world-religious traditions" and now focus on the monotheistic traditions of the West (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), we find ourselves on more (deceptively) familiar territory.  It will be our goal to examine not only the basic features of these three great religious traditions but also clarify many misconceptions about them, whether polemical, confessional, or modernistic.  From the outset we note that the Western concept of the Divine Reality, given the name of God (or more particularly of Yahweh in Judaism [Adonai], the Triune God in Christianity [Father/Son/Spirit], and Allah in Islam), is considerably different from what we encountered in our study of Eastern traditions. Beginning from this point we will see how different Western traditions and their histories, as well as practice, are from the Eastern traditions we have seen.  Nonetheless, we will be careful in our study to note the many common patterns that exist between these religious traditions.

            First a word of caution about "a religious story" and its relation to secular or even religious history.   The story of early Judaism is found in the Bible, in what Christians call the Old Testament or, more recently, what scholars call the Hebrew or Jewish Bible or Scriptures.  This story begins with the creation of the world and proceeds to introduce the great figures of biblical history: Adam and Eve, Noah, Abraham, and descendants (the 12 patriarchs).  There is of course considerable debate, as the result of historical and archaeological research, about the historicity of these early figures and their role in the evolving nation of Israel among its Semitic neighbors.  From the start we must remember that what the Bible presents and what most people, believers and nonbelievers, accept as the history of Israel and therefore of Judaism is instead a Jewish story about the people's relationship to God.  The Hebrew Bible, particularly its "historical books," are theological rather than historical works.  They may and indeed do contain much history (especially in the later accounts of Jewish development--from the kingship onward--c. 1000 BC) but they are in essence and in intention works of Jewish faith, the Sacred Books of Judaism (and by extension those also of Christians and less so those of Muslims).

            The Beginnings.  At this point we would speak, not about the history of Judaism or Israel but of the biblical story, which generations of early Jewish believers developed in the telling of what they perceived to be their relationship to the God of their Fathers, "the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob."  As noted earlier the biblical story begins by describing the creation of the world by God in six day followed, in Jewish fashion, by the day of Sabbath rest.  One hears of the story of the first humans (Adam and Eve), their "fall from grace," and the abysmal, sinful history of their descendants: the first murder (by Cain), and, so the story goes, a world so polluted by sin that God is forced to cleanse the earth by a cataclysmic flood and yet to see to the salvation of a core group, Noah, his family, and representative creatures of the earth.

            The flow of human history, according to these Jewish writers, continued in an abysmal direction, even that of rebellion and pride which brought about the dispersal of the human race into nations and languages (Tower of Babel--see Genesis, chapters 1-11).  The upshot of this early history, primarily Yahwist (see later), is God's choice of Abram/Abraham, the progenitor of Israel, to be the father of faith.  With Abraham, so the story continues, there begins a long convenantal relationship between God the suzerain and Israel the vassal.  This is a long series of stories described as the patriarchal period when Israel settles a first time in "the land flowing with milk and honey," a period of pastoral existence which ends, in a complex manner, with Israel's enslavement in Egypt (end of the Book of Genesis, beginning of that of Exodus), when Joseph is sold into slavery, rises in the Egyptian government administration, and welcomes his tribal relatives into the Egyptian delta.  Years later, so the story continues, once Joseph has been forgotten and the Hebrews are living a slave-like existence in Egypt (Exodus chapter 1) there begins, in relation to the story of Moses, God's ultimate freeing of the Jewish people from Egypt and slavery.  This momentous event is of course called the Exodus from Egypt, an event commemorated in Israel's Scriptures (Book of Exodus) and celebrated at the feast of Passover.

            Following the central revelation on Mount Sinai, where a formal covenant between God (Yahweh) and Israel is drawn (this includes among other things the "10 commandments") and after a lengthy sojourn in the desert of Sinai, Israel entered the Holy Land under Joshua, Moses' lieutenant, and there begins a long period of existence in Israel, first under a loose confederation of tribes (Book of Judges) and then under a Davidic dynasty until the Babylonian Exile (586 BC--Books of 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings).

            The Mosaic period was a formative one for Israel, whether involving the revelatory events of Sinai (revelation of YHWH, the covenant, and the crucial content and demands of the Torah).  From this period on Israel considered itself God's chosen people and repeatedly referred back to its covenantal experience in the desert of Sinai.  The long stay in the land of Israel, first among the Canaanites and then in constant conflict with the Philistines and other Semitic neighbors (the Aramaeans, the Edomites, Amonites, Moabites and others), saw the struggle over believe in Yahweh or the Baalim of their neighbors, over the role played either by the monarchy, the temple and its priesthood, and especially the crucial role of the prophets.

            The monarchic period from the time of David, c. 1000 BC, and following, proved to be a constant struggle between fidelity to the covenant of the people with Yahweh their God and the religion or gods of the surrounding neighbors and especially of the superpowers, either Egypt of the Pharaohs to the Southwest or the Mesopotamian rulers (first Assyria and then Babylon) to the Northeast.
                    "The pre-exilic prophets continually pointed toward a coming exile.   Amos and Hosea saw it coming
                    at the hands of the mighty Assyrians; and thus it did come for the northern kingdom, Israel.  The pro-
                    phets of the southern kingdom later realized that the Babylonians would swallow up their nation, Judah;
                    and so they did.  While the northern kingdom was crushed beneath the Assyrians and then the Babylo-
                    nians for more than 180 years, the southern kingdom was spared until the Babylonians under Nebuchad-
                    nezzar conquered Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.  It was another forty-nine years until the return of some Jude-
                    ans to Jerusalem under the Persians.
                            "This proved to be a time of consolidation and development for the people of Judah.  Surely it was
                    a time of sorrow and frustration, in that the exiles were separated from Jerusalem and left without the
                    Temple, which had been a major focus of their religion.  However, they adjusted well to the new en-
                    vironment and began the final shaping of a complete religious system, one not as dependent upon the
                    Temple complex.  Their meetings in homes for study and worship served as the beginnings for a syna-
                    gogue system, which was to become the norm in Judaism. Their gathering and editing of past traditions
                    received new impetus as various groups contributed to the effort.
                            "The Exile in Babylonia came to a sudden end soon after Cyrus, the ruler of the Persian Empire,
                    marched into Babylon almost unopposed in 539 B.C.E" (RW 262).
This post-exilic period (539f) proved to be a roller-coaster period dominated by foreign powers, first Persia, then Greece, briefly a Jewish restoration of the monarch under the Hasmoneans (167f), and the arrival of the Romans in 63 B.C.  Roman rule, either under the vassal Herodian kings or directly under Roman Procurators (the best known being Pontius Pilate) continued until the fall of the Roman Empire several centuries later.  Prior to this however is to be situated the life of Jesus (c. 4 B.C. to 28-30 A.D.) and, especially for Jewish history, the Judaeo-Roman war of 66-70 A.D., a conflict which terminated with the destruction of the Temple in 70 A.D. and the catastrophic dispersion of the Jews.  Thus, later Jewish history consists of a long period of dispersion among the populations of the Near East and eventually Eastern and Western Europe and finally the horrific (Holocaust) and then promising (founding of the State of Israel after World War II) events of the twentieth century.

       A note for next class (Monday--2/13/06): bring Bible to class for our beginning of Judaism (Western Religions).  Also read the chapter in Religious World on Judaism, 251-300.