Rather than offer "observations" on the NT and Its Interpretation, I will here reproduce our class handout and suggest some overall consideration about what it means to read the "New Testament as Literature" and about how one interprets these ancient Christian texts to understand both what they intended to convey to their original audiences and what a modern reader might get from these texts (the whole spectrum of modern readers: a student in NT as Lit, who may or may not be Christian, a believer, or even a religious person, or other students who are seeking ancient wisdom as one would from other ancient texts, individuals who are historians and welcome information on the early Christian period--and there are other readers as well).  Please focus on the theory of interpretation and reading, i.e., how to attain "meaning then" and distinguish it from "meaning now."  Finally, please re-read D.J. Harrington, Interpreting the NT, chapter 10, for an interesting (believer's, indeed preacher's) perspective as reader; then go beyond and consider the reading of "ancient texts" and the challenges of interpreting and the responsibility of treating these texts as they should be--texts with an original message or meaning and texts with possible significance for modern readers.

1. New Testament as Early Christian Anthology

            texts as conveyed by author, received by intended audience --> appropriated by later readers

            focus on genre & message of particular passage (in its context)
                    synoptics: Mark--focus on Jesus & his mission to counteract the commís apocalypticism
                                    Matthew--Judaeo-christian comm rereads Mark for its time & context
                                    Luke--Jesus for humanity & the communityís world mission
                                                + Acts--early years of christian community within Roman world
                    John: history of another Judaeo-christian community
                                    early commís focus on Jesus as miracle worker (signs) & on mission
                                    excommunication/Jesus as heavenly figure --> dev into charismatic movement
                                    schism & return more properly to role of Jesus
                    Paul: 7 documents & their relation to his Law-free Gentile mission
                    Paulinists: from 2 Thess, to Colossians, to Ephesians, to the Pastorals--Paul applied to
                                    new problems/situations/framework
                    general letters: different, diverse situation & messages--either an author's original
                                    thought or an author's message for a specific situation or problem
                    apocalypse/revelation: visionary narrative about a comm's hardships in view of the
                                    imminent end of the world; apocalyptic eschatology & social/political realities

            reading texts as liturgical texts (pericopes/reading cycles) & as ancient classics
 

2. Meaning of the Text (Harrington, Interpreting New Testament, chap 10)

            presuppositions: history of interpretation & subjective encounter

            what text says/means (meaning then) & its significance (what it means today--meaning now)
                    use of methods & "proper" reading (1st part of chapter)
                    message for another age/extended audience --> Christian reader (Harr) --> beyond

            exegesis/study & contribution: to spirituality & to culture
 

3. New Testament in Historical and Doctrinal Perspective

            history: first period of christian history --> patristic period --> later

            function: texts of formative years of christian thought (canon)
                    direct influence on contemporary period/readers

            character: NT as summary of divine wisdom or as early christian classics which community
                    (over centuries) accepts as normative for its beliefs

            Conclusion  John, for the benefit of his fellow-sufferers throughout the province of Asia, gathered his apocalyptic "homilies" and organized them into a narrative of warning, encouragement, and instruction.   Employing the Jesus tradition and current mythological lore the author reassured the audience that though they were now deprived of power they would receive real power in the heavenly Jerusalem, and that while justice was sorely lacking in this life, there would be a time of reckoning for Rome and its ministers and a time of reward for the elect.   The very nature of God (lordship) demanded this and the Christ-event made salvation a reality.   He had conquered once and would conquer again, but in the meantime his followers had to conquer by resisting the beast even if it meant death.   The Lamb has his book in hand so the author advises: "here is a call for the endurance and faith of the saints" (l3:l0).

            The Book of Revelation is about the author John's apocalyptic situation and ideology and the message he conveys to the beleaguered church in the outlying Roman province of Asia.  Alienated from the power and culture of their contemporaries, deprived of the economic resources needed even for survival, and threatened in regard to their commitment to God and christian fellowship, the christian communities of Asia developed an increasingly apocalyptic perspective vis-a-vis Rome, their pagan neighbors, and their follow christians.  This work therefore addresses the crisis brought on by the extreme enforcement of emperor cult as a test of the addressees' loyalty under the threat of disruption, alienation, and even death.

            A Focus on Rev 12:1-15:4 or the Central, Messianic Cycle   For the center of the work, the author has reserved the messianic cycle of unnumbered vision, namely, the vision of the struggle between the mysterious woman with a crown of twelve stars and the red dragon with its bestial helpers (12:1f).  This vision or central septet of course focuses greatly on the community's situation (especially chapter 13) and on the role of Jesus in these endtime events, since the seven unnumbered visions concerning the woman, the dragon, and the Lamb are structurally and thematically central to the Apocalypse.  Indeed, this cycle, the middle septet, the unnumbered visions of chapters l2f, is the only cycle (on the other cycles, see earlier) which makes structural use of the messianic savior, while employing diverse traditions to present the author's central, messianic cycle.   Making use of the well-known tale of the mythic serpent's attempt to destroy the world's savior by attacking mother and child, by combining this with the Jewish story about the rebellion and fall of Satan, and finally by superimposing the Christian messianic traditions, John has constructed a fantastic cosmic narrative to explain to his audience the reason why evil was running rampant and the elect were in such distress (see Jesus, p. 426, note 50 for the story of Apollo; also class handouts).

            It is in this context that one must understand the multifaceted symbols of the cycle.   The woman with the crown of twelve stars is variously Israel, Mary, and, most basically, the community of the elect as personified in the bride, the new Jerusalem (l9:7; 2l:2,9).   At one level the story is that of Jesus the male child who will usher in the golden age, as Apollo or other savior figures were wont to do.   One might be tempted to see in l2:l-6 a stylized version of Jesus' birth, but if one wishes to make sense out of the narrative sequence which John has given to the story, one must envision the taking up of the child into heaven (v. 5), the woman's "protected" exile in the wilderness (6), and the subsequent angelic battle in heaven (7f) as related to Jesus' soteriological and apocalyptic roles, that is, death/ resurrection and return.   The casting of the devil and its host of angels out of heaven is a result of the child's enthronement for as a heavenly voice states: "now the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Christ have come" (l0).   The heavenly battle is over; there will be an interim of evil on the earth (the time and situation of the embattled audience) but, since the Lamb has conquered (v. ll), there is assurance that the "time is short" (l2).   Chapter l2, therefore, is deeply christological in character for the cosmic victory has been won by the Lamb which was slain, i.e., "Jesus Christ the faithful witness, the first-born of the dead, and the ruler of kings on earth" (l:5).   Patience is enjoined for the final establishment of his rule is soon to come (see 12:5; 19:15).

            The cycle is arranged in a counter balance of 3 evil scenes and three good scenes. After presenting the woman who is about to give birth to the Messiah (12:1-2), the author speaks first of the satanic monster in a series of heavenly and earthly scenes (12:3-18). Following the monster's failed attempt to prevent the coming of the conquering Messiah (12:5), there is a description of its persecution of the woman (the church) and its other children (the community of holy ones).  The only thing that the righteous can do is either pray for the end to come soon (those who have died and are with the Lamb express this sentiment-- 12:10-12) or seek God's temporal protection (the woman and her children are situated in "a place prepared by God"--see 12:6, 13-17).  Invariably the time is expressed as being "soon," that is, in the tradition of Daniel, as being "a time, and times, and half a time" (12:14) or three and a half years, 42 months, or 1260 days.

            This satanic monster however has active allies, a first ferocious and military beast, that is, a boastful monster who would be God (13:1-10) and a second pseudo-religious figure who strives both to entice the righteous to the sinful ways of the dragon and the first beast and to destroy those who resist worship of the beast (13:11-18).  Both beasts are presented as anti-christ figures, the first as one who had received a mortal blow but been healed (in imitation of Christ's death and resurrection) and the second as a lamb or prophetic figure who performs miracles and satanic liturgies to deceive the inhabitants of the earth.  The first is reputed to be the reincarnation of Nero the emperor at the head of the Parthian troops to destroy Rome (see Collins, Apocalypse, 91 and class handouts) and the second as the local priesthood that fosters the divine imperial cult.

            Here follows comments on material only briefly seen in class: after the above first three evil scenes there follow in quick succession three scenes of consolation, activity, and revenge. First one encounters a consoling, heavenly scene (14:1-5) depicting the victorious Lamb in the company of "140,000 who have been redeemed from the earth."  Immediately, a fifth vision presents three angels who extol 1) the preaching of the gospel before the end (like Mark 13:10), 2) who announce the forthcoming fall of Babylon , and 3) who underscore the severe punishment of "those who worship the beast and its image, and receive a mark on their foreheads or on their hands" (14:6-13).  The sixth vision, or third good one, presents the powerful scene of the returning Son of Man (14:14-20).  Seated on a white cloud he leads the harvest with his sharp sickle "because the harvest of the earth is fully ripe" and fills "the great wine press of the wrath of God" (see the "Battle Hymn of the Republic").

            Once again however the poignant series of negative and positive (if one can use these terms) visions is brought to an end by a seventh victorious scene where the wrath of God is brought to an end (15:16) with a heavenly liturgy.

        This series of unnumbered visions then (12:1-15:4) uses much coded language (whether the number of the beast, the symbolic presentation of the three evil monsters and of Christ as lamb and warrior Son of Man) to explain the community's crisis in the face of emperor worship or the imperial cult which threatened to destroy the churches of the province of Asia.  The author employs old myths about heavenly revolt whether of mythic serpents or angelic hosts to describe the satanic situation that prevailed at the time.  These are further presented as the definitive signs of the endtime which is quickly approaching.

            Study of Rev 1:1-11:19  The Book of Revelation begins with a prologue (1:1-8) which introduces some of the work's major themes and concerns.  This work is a "revelation" or apocalypsis of God's mysterious plan for the endtime, a plan made known to the community through a series of intermediaries and finally communicated to the audience in the form of 7 letters to the 7 symbolic churches of Asia and its subsequent series of 5 septets (or cycles of 7 visions).  The prologue speaks of what is soon to take place, namely, Jesus' return as warrior and judge, a mystery communicated to John by an angelic, otherworldly figure.

            The work, in a first prophetic and commissioning vision (1:9-20), speaks of John the visionary or seer, who is imprisoned at Patmos and now receives a dazzling heavenly vision of the Son of Man.  Employing imagery from Daniel 7 and Ezekiel 43, the author describes God's envoy who will soon set about to establish a new heaven and a new earth for the elect.  A kaleidoscopic vision of the heavenly warrior underscores both the situation and protection of the suffering churches, whose situation and anxiety are expressed in a series of 7 letters (chapters 2-3).  The author who is simply called John is seemingly well acquainted with the histories and activities of the churches of the Roman province of Asia.  The author consoles the suffering churches but also warns the readers to have nothing to do with the soon-to-fall mistress of the world and its demonic power ("come out of her, my people, so that you do not take part in her sins" (18:4).  See the class handout on the standard form of the seven letters of chapters 2-3.

            Another lengthy twofold prophetic vision (chapter 4-5) prepares the reader for the following series of septets.  This vision focuses first on God and the heavenly liturgy (chapter 4) and then on the Lamb, the only one who is worthy to open the seals of the divine mystery (chapter 5).  The author is allowed to see the heavenly mysteries through heaven's open door (4:1).  Thus the author or visionary is given a glance of the dazzling mysteries of the heavens and of its secrets, particularly an introduction to Jesus' revelatory role as the Lamb that is worthy to open the seals of God's mysteries, that is, the secrets of God's plan for what is soon to take place.  By means of this complex, double vision the visionary (like the prophets of old) is commissioned for the reception of divine knowledge which he has been commanded to write down (1:11, 19f) and to send to the churches of Asia (1:ll; 2:1f) for their inspiration, consolation, and edification.

            With chapter 6 there begins a series of 5 septets: 7 seals (6:1f); 7 trumpets (8:2f), 7 central, unnumbered visions (12:1f); 7 bowls (15:5f); and 7 more unnumbered visions (19:11f).  The first two (the seals and the trumpets) as well as the fourth (the bowls) are built on a circular pattern of progressively increasing degrees of evil or disruption until the fifth and sixth introduce persecution of the righteous in the former and the final great battle in the latter.  The seals employ OT imagery of 4 colored horses from Zech 1:8-10 to describe the endtime as an invasion and consequent destruction and death, while the trumpets make use of OT tradition concerning the Exodus plagues (see Exodus 7-12) and other animalistic tradition from Joel 2 to describe the horrors of the endtime as well.  Each of these insert, artistically, interludes concerning more optimistic, heavenly themes.  Finally, each ends in a scene of triumph amid pyrotechnic manifestations of divine victory.  Again: see class handout for structural observations.

            Rev 15:5f  In anticipation we might add here that the septet of the bowls follows a similar pattern, also employs the plague tradition, as did the trumpets, to describe the endtime, focuses on the battle, called Armageddon, and its participating cast (16:12-16), but, instead of adding an interlude before the final victory vision, appends a lengthy text after victory, a text called the Babylon Appendix (17:1-19:10).  The final septet, devoted to the aftermath of the last great battle (19:11f), focuses on the millennial theme of reward of a thousand-year reign with the glorious Christ for those who have undergone death for their faith (20:4-10).  The victory scene (21:1f) imperceptibly flows into a second appendix (the Jerusalem appendix) about the heavenly-earthly Jerusalem as the final paradise for God's beloved. Jerusalem is here described in terms borrowed from Eden tradition of Genesis 3, and other paradisiac imagery from Isaiah 25, 60, and Ezekiel 40f.

            Following the above overview, with emphasis on chapters 1-11, we will devote our attention next class to the second half of the book, chapters 12-22, but in two installments: first the central cycle (12:1-15:4) and then the rest of the cycles in a final class (15:5f).

            A study of this New Testament work requires a reasonable knowledge of a number of literary and theological issues, for this work, though odd by NT standards, is part of a group of literary creations that focus on the endtime and its tribulations.  The work addresses the concerns of many christians in the Roman province of Asia who are undergoing persecution, or at least severe and selective mistreatment at the hands of the local religious and political establishment and so believe that the endtime is near.

            Apocalyptic Thought and Early Christian Apocalypticism   The author as well as the communities to which the Book of Revelation was directed were emersed in apocalyptic thinking.  Much as was true of the communities for which the Gospel of Mark or 2 Thessalonians were written, these early christians expected the near-return of Jesus as Son of Man who would bring an end to the reign of evil when he would come with his angels as warrior and judge.  These people subscribed to a full-blown apocalypticism, for they believed that the world they lived in was corrupt beyond repair.  Not only did they look forward to an afterlife with the Lord, but they no longer accepted that God works in the world to improve its institutions for a better future (as is true of traditional, prophetic eschatology), but rather that the world was evil, was under demonic control, and was aggressively seeking to deceive the elect (as is true of apocalyptic eschatology).  Thus the author and some within the communities to which he is writing subscribed to a graphic scenario in which an age of evil is graphically related to endtime signs of cosmic, natural, and civic disturbances when messianic pretenders will attempt to dissuade the elect from their allegiance to God and the Messiah.  Believing that they are experiencing the endtime woes, they see themselves as living in the final age of evil and only await the final battle when Jesus will destroy their demonic enemies and will judge the living and the dead (see the apocalyptic scenario presumed either by Mark 13 or 2 Thessalonians 2).

            The Book of Revelation: A Brief Introduction   This work is correctly described as an apocalypse (Greek: apocapypsis) or a visionary narrative about the endtimes.  The work has many literary characteristics that make it unique for it combines epistolary, prophetic, and visionary features to present a number of visionary cycles about the climactic confrontation between the forces of good and those of evil, with the people of their time caught in the crossfire.  For a brief literary introduction to this work, particularly its style and symbolism, see Jesus, 410-416.  Also one should read further in the same chapter to gain a firm grasp of the socio-religious setting that brought about the apocalyptic crisis that the book's author and audience are experiencing (see particularly the author's discussion of the two beast in chaptger 13).  I would end with the following citations to underscore the nature and seriousness of the crisis for the author and readers of the Roman province of Asia (present-day Turkey--see list of 7 churches).
                    The author views the zealous enforcement of the imperial cult by the local religious and political authorities
                    as a diabolic scheme against God's people.  What began as a litmus test of one's allegiance to Rome and its
                    emperor became the undoing of the young movement in that part of the empire.  Not only were those publicly
                    apprehended either killed or imprisoned (if they were Roman citizens), but many in the community viewed
                    themselves as disenfranchised.  Their movement would be unable, publicly, to exist within the Roman commu-
                    nity, for without authenticated documents (the mark of the beast) they would be reduced to a marginal or
                    underground existence with no means of subsistence.   Cut off from Roman society in such a radical way,
                    many members of the Christian community withdrew from that menacing society and longed for an end to its
                    tribulation.   Acquainted with current Jewish and Christian apocalyptic thinking, the author directed his atten-
                    tion to the signs of the times: persecution of the elect, a concerted effort to deceive and entice God's people,
                    and blasphemy against God (418).

            Thus the author addresses the above issue in his work, first of all as a series of sermons and eventually as a collection of these in the form of an apocalyptic work or a series of cycles about the end of the world and the woes that will announce its advent.
                    The Book of Revelation, therefore, is written and circulated to the churches to encourage the audience to bear
                    patiently with its ever-worsening situation and impossible conditions, for the time of reckoning, the time of the
                    end, so they believed, was near (l:3), a time when finally the kingdom (new heaven and new earth) would be
                    established around the throne of God and of the Lamb" (22:3) (419--both citations from Jesus).

            A solid reading of this unusual work is now possible as the result of recent studies in apocalyptic literature (begin reading the work as we spend two full days looking at its structure and message).  The Book of Revelation is a work of its time, written for a beleagured christian community in the province of Asia.   But it is also a haunting work about humanity's yearning for and fascination with the mysterious ending of the world and the unknown that awaits us all.

             This particular stage of development obviously grows out of the tendencies of the second stage.  As the community became increasingly charismatic, that is, as many relied increasingly on their experience of the Spirit's activity in their midst, there developed a split or schism within the Johannine community between the more traditional Johannine members who insisted that Jesus continued to play the essential role in christian thinking and life and the charismatics or spiritualists who, from the former's perspective, soon broke away from the main body of the community.  Thus, while the dispute was basically a pneumatic or Spirit-based one, namely, the two groups' estimate of the role played by the Spirit, the debate and eventual split had profound christological, soteriological, ecclesiological, and apparently disastrous moral consequences.  The seeds for these profound differences seemingly were planted in the earlier period when the community members focused greatly on the Spirit's role within the community.  With time some adopted an even more radical spiritualism whose theological consequences lead to a bitter struggle between the two groups as one, apparently, went its own way and the other struggled forcefully to reclaim and readjust the Johannine tradition both to focus on Jesus and his role and to counter the tendencies of the charismatic secessionists.

            It is at this point that one relies more firmly on data gathered from the community's literature, for 1 John is written precisely following the communal schism and is an attempt to reclaim Johannine tradition, which has gradually become obscured, in order to balance the spiritualist tendencies evident in the second edition of the Gospel, and to combat the exaggerated, heretical positions of the secessionists.   First, it is from 1 John 2:18-19 (see also 2 John 7) that we hear of the schism and the overt polemics being waged against the spiritualists who are called anti-christs and deceivers.  In its two major parts 1 John addresses what is generally considered to be the secessionists' two major errors.  In the first section (1:5f), introduced by "this is the message...," the author addresses the secessionists' position vis-a-vis Jesus and the Spirit.  This spiritual group has relegated Jesus to being the past sender of the Spirit.  1 John insists that both Jesus and the Spirit are the source of salvation, that Jesus' word and work are essential to christian faith as commands from the Father, that Jesus atones for sin, that the Spirit does or cooperates in doing Jesus' work, that Jesus embodies and teaches the community's tradition, and that the Spirit relates to that tradition.  Rather than a radical spiritualism that ignores Jesus, the author recalls the Johannine community's emphasis on Jesus' essential, salvific role.  In the second section of the document (3:11f, also introduced by "this is the message"), 1 John addresses community behavior as based on the commandment to love one another.  Rather than seeing oneself as saved and thus as sinless (the position of the spiritualists), the members of the community must acknowledge that holiness is a requirement and a process that demands the motivation and activity of love.  As God has loved the world in sending Jesus, so Jesus gives his life for his followers and commands his own to love one another.  In this way the author addresses community behavior and condemns the extreme position of the spiritualists.

            Thus 1 John is produced both as a denunciation of the extremists of the charismatic (i.e., the late second period of the community's development) and as an attempt to reclaim and correct the Johannine tradition by underscoring Jesus' role vis-a-vis the Spirit and the unfinished nature of human holiness as requiring loving activity.  From the activity and the position taken by the author of 1 John we conclude that the secessionists subscribed to a belief of eschatological possession of the Spirit, namely, the Jewish notion that God would send the Spirit in a special and abundant way in the last days. Thus, these charismatics insisted that Jesus' ministry was essentially a preparation for and a sending of the Spirit which is now poured out on the community.  Jesus' ministry and role is now past; the community now possesses the fullness of the Spirit and so possesses eternal life. In this way they consider themselves completely cleansed of sin and need only be guided by the Spirit.  Thus while the main point of contention was christological and pneumatological (or Jesus versus the Spirit), the consequences were multifaceted and long-range.  Jesus was a figure of the past whose role was primarily the sending or giving of the Spirit, so there was no question of an atoning death, of ethical directives or moral teaching from him nor any need to speak of his return or parousia and his role as eschatological judge.  It is to these issues therefore that the author of 1 John directed attention by reemphasizing Jesus' role vis-a-vis the Spirit as well as insisting on ethical norms and especially, by way of strategy, by insisting on ethical or love commands to address the unfinished nature of human holiness.  Finally, 1 John calls upon believers to obey Jesus' words as he obeyed the Father and to love others as Jesus loved others.

            Before turning to the third, subsequent edition of the Gospel, it should be noted that 2 and 3 John (a point not made in class but noted on your class handout) also come from this stage of Johannine development and relate either to the reception of secessionist ministers or preachers or to concomitant problems of community structures and authority .  These two documents are seemingly the last known literature produced by this eccentric, early christian community or group of churches (for a more extended treatment of these two documents see Jesus, 225-31).

            At a later date and in support of the program set forth by the author of 1 John, someone within the community, presumably after much of the crisis had passed, set out to edit the community's Gospel to conform to this program and to correct some marked ambiguities and tendencies of the earlier spiritual writer of the second stage. So the final editing of the Johannine Gospel is to be seen as a defense of the movement behind 1 John.  To do this the author insists on several crucial issues with accompanying strategies.

            a) A hallmark of this new edition is the inclusion of numerous command or commandment passages: see 10 :18; 12:45-50; 13:34; 14:15, 21, 31; and 15:10, 12.  By means of these the new edition focuses on the permanent role and validity of Jesus' words (i.e., the tradition) and on the basic, reciprocal nature of the love command ("I give you a new commandment, that you love one another.  Just as I have loved you, you also should love one another"--13:34; see also 15:12 and 1 John 2:7-8).  In this context the editor also stresses Jesus' ministry as a command from the Father and the motivation of his death as also stemming from love (15:13).

            b) Another important tactic of the editor is the insertion of a series of "paraclete" (paracletes in Greek) or "advocate" passages (14:16-17, 26, 30-31; 15:26-27; 16:7f, 12f).  This term, already employed in 1 John 2:1, is employed to discourse on the Spirit's relationship to Jesus.  The editor insists that Jesus is the first paraclete and the Spirit a second one, one whose function is to inspire believers and to recall Jesus' words or revelation.  The two paracletes have related functions, the second being subordinate to the first and the first also being the Spirit's sender.  Both have important functions in God's work.  The editor does not reject the position of the secessionists but both accepts it and seriously modifies it.

            c) Additionally one hears of the well-known "beloved disciple" or the one whom Jesus loved (this topic what briefly mentioned in class).  This symbolic figure represents the ideal Johannine members and serves on several occasions as a foil for comparisons with the traditional church.  In the Johannine narrative the "beloved disciple" represents the Johannine community and Simon Peter the apostolic church--see various passages where the "beloved disciple" (or "other disciple") appears, particularly, the interesting contrast between him and Peter in the tomb scene (20:2-10).  Clearly the more orthodox group of Johannine believers are beginning to reach out to the larger church or other sheep (see also 10:16-17).

            d) Beyond these major issues there are signs of a return, by the orthodox group, to more traditional structures and forms of authority, a reintroduction of future eschatology, apocalyptic dualism, of the Son of Man's return to raise believers from the dead, and of Jesus' life as light in a dark world (12:46-47).  Also there is a return to ritual, i.e., to physical and traditional features of worship, and especially to Jesus' presence among believers.

            Finally, this community like other early churches disappears from historical purview and seemingly merges with the apostolic church of the second century. This unusual community, the product of several generations of Johannine history and evolution, produced a memorable legacy and a tantalizing glimpse into the evolution of an early christian community from its origins, through its vicissitudes, loves, and hates, and with its hard-earned lessons for contemporary ancients as well as for modern students and travelers.

Texts for 3rd Stage (given as class handout)

1. Reading of 1 John (also 2-3 John)

          major issues --> based on formulas: 1:5 this is the message --> proclamation
                                                                  3:11 this the message --> love one another
          1) Jesus & the Spirit--a spir comm has relegated Jesus to being (past) sender of Spirit--author insists that both
                                Jesus and the Spirit are the source of salvation, that Jesus' work and word are essential to Xian faith as
                                commands from the Father, that Jesus atones for sin, that the Spirit does or cooperates in doing Jesus'
                                work, that Jesus represents the community's tradition and that the Spirit relates to that tradition
             2) behavior as based on love command--a spir comm that sees itself as saved or sinless--author insists that holiness
                                is a requirement and a process that requires the activity of love--as God loved world in sending Jesus,
                                Jesus gives life for his followers, and commands his own to love one another (to address comm
                                behavior)

         2-3 John address later issues: reception of missionaries as related to their orthodoxy and comm structures and authority

         seriousness of crisis as resulting from charismatic character of community

2. Editing of Johannine Gospel in Defense of Movement behind 1 Jn

           command passages in chaps 10:18; 12:49-50; 13:34; 14:15, 21, 31; & 15:10, 12--to focus on the permanent role &
                    validity of Jesus' words (the tradition) & on the basic nature of the love command--Jesus' ministry as a
                    command from the Father and the motivation of his death as stemming from love

           paraclete passages: 14:15, 21-24, 30-31; 15:26-27; 16:7f, 12f; Jesus = 1st Paraclete, Spirit = another Paraclete who
                    inspires & recalls Jesus' words/revelation (both Jesus & Spirit) --> see class notes on chapter 14:8-31 on its
                    use of command and paraclete language

           beloved disciple & other Christians
                    BD (Johannine community) & Peter (apostolic church) (20:2-10)--reach out to larger church/other sheep
                    (10:16-17), return to structures & authority

           apocalyptic dualism: future eschatology (5:26-29; 6:39-40,44, 53-58)
                    Son of Man returns, raises from the dead, Jesus' life as light in dark world

           return to ritual, to physical, to tradition, to Jesus

            Further, careful examination of the Gospel's terminology reveals a number of solid criteria to distinguish the Sign Gospel from later stages, particularly the second edition.  a) Some of these criteria are clearly to be contrasted with those of the first edition: a few negative uses of the term "sign" (2:18; 6:30), a preference for the term "works" to refer to Jesus' miracles and ministry (5:20, 36; 7:3, 21; and 5:15; 10:25f), reference to the Jewish authorities no longer as "Pharisees, etc," but as "the Jews" in a rather negative and accusatory sense.  Also there is a continued emphasis on faith but as a critique of "sign faith" and as based on Jesus' words, the Scriptures, or the Father's witness (see 22:22; 4:41-42, etc).  b) Other criteria emerge as being from this second edition: fourfold witness to Jesus (John, the works of the Father, the Father's word heard from Jesus, and the Scriptures; see especially 5:31-40).  There is in contrast to the first edition a focus on a high christology (whether through the use of titles, deeds, and indications of Jesus' divine knowledge).  Further, in more theological and thematic terms, there is a focus on eternal life as being a present reality (i.e., a realized eschatology), a focus on the Spirit (a rebirth and reception--3:3f; 7:37-39), a distinct dualism (world/cosmos as negative), and the community as a persecuted minority that has been expelled from the synagogue.

            Once again from a reading of the texts that have thus been isolated, texts that were added to the "Sign Gospel" in a second edition, it is possible to discern that the community has now been expelled from the synagogue.  One must probably conclude that progressively higher claims for Jesus' uniqueness, role, and relationship to the Father led to the community's unceremonious expulsion from the Jewish community; indeed they like the parents of the blind man were faced with excommunication for "confessing Jesus to be the Messiah" (9:22).  Their former co-religionists are now also unceremoniously labeled as outsiders, "the Jews," the community's avowed opponents.  On every occasion they are viewed no longer as partners in dialogue about Jesus but as undisguised enemies who denigrate both Jesus and his followers (see 9:18-23).  The conflict is so explosive that members of the synagogue are viewed as rejoicing over those christians whom they persecute or even kill (16:2).  This separation is usually dated to c. 90 A.D. and related to the recitation of a series of "Benedictions" which would effectively expel christians or messianic Jews from the synagogue.  Von Wahlde expresses this hostility thus:
                    In the material of the second edition, there is such hostility evident on the part of "the Jews" and
                    such defensiveness evident on the part of the community that it is clear that the community was
                    intent on explaining its own belief in a legitimating way and at the same time explaining why such
                    persuasive grounds could be so completely rejected by their fellow Jews (Earliest Version, 178).

            Thus, the expulsion from the synagogue led to considerable polemics and self-defense on the part of the Jewish-christians of the Johannine community.  Routinely, earlier debates about Jesus are transformed into declarations by "the Jews" that Jesus violates the Sabbath, that he is demon possessed, and that he claims to be greater than Moses and Abraham (chapters 7 and 8), declarations that are countered by accusations by Jesus against "the Jews" that they are trying to kill him (5:18; 7:1, 19; 8:37, 40).

            Further, the theology of the second stage of development, as evidenced in the second edition of the Gospel, has changed considerably.  No longer does one believe on the basis of signs, for indeed the community is now critical of such naive faith, but rather Jesus' miracles, now called "works," are of less importance for faith than are Jesus' words, the Scriptures, and the Father's witness (see 5:31f; also 20:24f).  There is now a focus on Jesus' divine power, knowledge, and relationship to the Father.  One now witnesses in this new edition an undisguised high christology.  One has only to examine 10:22-39 to appreciate the high claims made in Jesus' name.  Here, after speaking of the Father's testimony to him ("the works that I do in my Father's name testify to me"--25), Jesus claims: "the Father and I are one" (30).  He is then accused of blasphemy for making himself God (33), and further asserts that he and the Father mutually indwell ("the Father is in me and I am in the Father--38; see also 14:10).  Beside, there is in this passage a repeated focus on God as Jesus' father and on Jesus doing the Father's works (25, 33, 37, 38).  Of course there are repeated claims of high christology in the use of "I am" statements and other claims of equality and of heavenly or divine origin (6:41; 16:27-28).  The various changes in emphasis or more fundamentally in perspective are brought into the text by means of misunderstandings and critiques of signs and of easy faith.  Seemingly simple realities of the first edition, by means of simple literary or narrative techniques, lead to deeper realities and a more searching look at Jesus' relation to the Father and at his role more generally.

            There is also a focus on Jesus' death as departure to the Father and on Jesus' role as sender or giver of the Spirit (7:37-39; 20:21-23).  Thus there is corresponding emphasis on rebirth from the Spirit, on eternal life now through Jesus or possession of the Spirit.  It is this emphasis on the Spirit which will mark a major development of the community at a later stage.

            The community at this stage of its development senses itself as a persecuted minority both by the outside world and its former Jewish parent community (15:18f and 16:21f).  It sees itself as alien to the world and portrays Jesus too as alien both to the world and to Judaism.  As it turns away from its missionary outlook of former years and adopts a dualistic vision, it now turns upon itself and its possession of the Spirit which the departing Jesus gives them (20:19-23).

Readings for Second Stage of Johannine Development (given as class handout)

1. Major Passages & Themes
                    (usually referring to “the Jews”: 2:18f; 5:10f; 6:41f; 7:11f; 8:22f; 9:18f etc)
                2:18-22 the Jews, signs, misunderstanding, witness: Script & word
                3:3f rebirth -- from Spirit
                4:10f, 19f living water & worship in spirit & truth
                5:10f the Jews persecute Jesus
                5:31f testimony to Jesus: John, works of Jesus/Father, Father, Scriptures
                6:35f I am bread of life...from heaven...give eternal life
                6:63f Spirit gives life
                7:13f fear of the Jews & Jesus' teaching
                7:28f who Jesus is--his hour has not yet come
                7:37f if you thirst come to me
                8:17f Jesus & the Father as witnesses to Jesus
                8:28f Jesus as divine Son of Man & life in his word
                8:53f Jesus greater than Abraham
                9:18-23 the Jews kick out those who believe in Jesus (see class handout on chapter 9)
                12:23f death as time for Jesus to be glorified
                13:31-33 Jesus as Son of Man departs & returns to Father (16:28--also 14:8f,18f)
                15:18f hated by world & 16:2f by the Jews
                17:1f Jesus' prayer to the Father
                arrest, trial, death, resurr (see "the Jews" 18:14,31,36,38;19:7,11,12, 31,38; 20:19)
 

2. Some Clues & Themes to Be Noted

                “signs” now used negatively --> demand for “proof”
                             also miracles become “work/s”
                Jewish authorities = “the Jews”
                focus on faith not as result of signs but Jesus’ words/scripture, etc
                focus on witness to Jesus, especially by the Father (works)
                clearly high christology
                focus also on Spirit, on world as negative
                sense of persecution/minority/expelled from synagogue
 

3. Some Examples

                2¹⁸The Jews then said to him, “What sign can you show us for doing this?” ¹⁹Jesus answered them, “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.” ²⁰The Jews then said, “This temple has been under construction for forty-six years, and will you raise it up in three days?” ²¹But he was speaking of the temple of his body. ²²After he was raised from the dead, his disciples remembered that he had said this; and they believed the scripture and the word that Jesus had spoken.

                5²⁰The Father...will show him greater works than these, so that you will be astonished....³⁶But I have a testimony greater than John’s.  The works that the Father has given me to complete, the very works that I am doing, testify on my behalf that the Father has sent me.

            By focusing especially on the Fourth Gospel's positive use of the term "signs" to designate Jesus' miracles and its identifying of the Jewish authorities in traditional fashion as "Pharisees, chief priests, or rulers," one begins to isolate a sizable proportion of what was originally the young community's Gospel, usually referred to as the "Sign Gospel."  Additionally, there is in these texts a sense that "sign faith" readily leads to conversion ("they believed in him" as a result of his signs--see 2:11, 23, etc) and that conversion readily occurs on witnessing or hearing Jesus' miraculous power and persuasive teaching (see 3:1-2; 4:53-54).  Each of these criteria connotes a negative or terminological contrast with terms and themes which appear in later editions of the Gospel (e.g., negative use of "sign" or preference for the term "work" in referring to Jesus' miracles--see 2:18 where "sign" means "proof" not a means of faith and 5:36 where Jesus' miracles and ministry more generally are called "works of the Father").  Also important as criteria are terms which denote a low, traditional christology (Jesus is referred to as Messiah/Christ, Son, prophet--also opinion about him is greatly divided) and repeated geographical or Palestinian references as well as allusions to Jewish feasts and customs.

            From such a reading of the Johannine Gospel one discerns a "Sign Gospel" that begins with the ministry of John (1:19f), as does Mark 1:2f, that focuses on Jesus' signs or miracles (seven that are presented as narratives: changing of water into wine at Cana--2:1f; the healing of the royal official also at Cana- 4:46f; the healing of the man at the pool--5:1f; the multiplication of the loaves--6:1f; the walking on the water--6:16f; the healing of the blind man--9:ff; and the raising of Lazarus--11:1f) and preaching in Jewish contexts, whether the Sabbath, Passover, Tabernacles or Booths, or unnamed Jewish festivals, and finally dwells on Jesus' last days, i.e., his passion, death, and resurrection.  Indeed, the original Sign Gospel ends with a reference to Jesus' miraculous works and their role in eliciting faith in those who heard the good news (20:30-31).  From this brief Gospel then one discerns a Jewish-christian community that sees in Jesus the Messiah or "sent one" of Jewish tradition.  This Jewish-christian community focuses on Jesus' role as wonder worker who displays God's power much as Moses did during the Exodus event.  This miraculous power forms part of Jesus' story and underscores the community's interest in faith, conversion, and mission as the first steps of discipleship.  Jesus' signs are the means of missionary expansion, for the community is an outward-directed missionary group within the Jewish community.  Thus, the community uses the story of Jesus as the basis for its beliefs and preaching, as it encounters the outside world with Jesus' words and actions.  Jesus is presented by them as God's Messiah or messenger, the one who invites listeners to become followers.

            The community is also focused on issues of christology, particularly stories about seeking Jesus (7:25f, 31f, 40f) and debates about his identity (9:13f, 24f; 10:19; 11:55f).  This concern is seemingly presented as a series of debates with fellow Jews about who Jesus is, whether the Messiah, Son of God, a prophet, or a sinner who violates the Sabbath, a man who is demon possessed (9:16-17; 10:19-21).  These debates suggest early inter-community dialogues among Jews about Jesus' identity and role and perhaps an aggressive mission to Jewish contemporaries.  The community members presumably considered themselves part of the Jewish community and sought to win others to belief or faith in Jesus, the Jewish Messiah.  Thus membership in this group was fully focused on and the community was very concerned with acceptance and rejection of Jesus--essential to its christology was the acceptance of Jesus as the fulfillment of Jewish messianic expectations.  But at the same time belief in Jesus meant an acceptance also of his death and resurrection, as the story of his life indicates.

           Finally, it should be noted that the text of the Sign Gospel itself, especially 9:24-34, gives evidence that a crisis was coming, for the claims made about Jesus and continued membership in the synagogue would have become burning issues in the relation between "Jews for Christ" and the rest of the Jewish community.  Thus from the above we venture to suggest that this first stage of community development would correspond roughly with the development one finds in the Synoptic tradition.  One would find similar concerns about Jesus' identity (in a low traditional christological idiom), a reflection of the early Jesus movement's concern for mission and discipleship, and a distinct reflection of its Palestinian origins.  Further, one sees here clear evidence of the community's Jewish origin and early development.

 Readings for First Stage of Development (given as class handout) --  please read; review for next class.
 

7 Signs:
                2:1-12 Changing of Water into Wine at Cana
                4:46-54 Curing of Nobleman’s Son
                5:1-14 Cure of Man at Pool of Bethzatha
                6:1-15 Multiplication of the Loaves
                6:16-21 Jesus Walks on the Waters
                9:1-7 Cure of the Man Born Blind
                11:1-44 Raising of Lazarus from the Dead
 

Other Texts
                1:19f concerning John (also 3:22-26; 4:1-4; 10:40-42)
                3:1-2; 7:50f; 19:39f concerning Nicodemus
                4:1f story of the Samaritan woman
                7:35f, 40f seeking Jesus
                10:19f; 11:55f divided opinion concerning Jesus
                18:1f, 19f, 33f arrest/trial
                20:1, 11, 14f the resurrection
                20:30-31 original conclusion of sign gospel
 

e.g.   2²³When he was in Jerusalem during the Passover festival, many believed in his name because they saw the signs that he was doing... 3¹Now there was a Pharisee named Nicodemus, a leader of the Jews.  ²He came to Jesus by nigh and said to him, “Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God; for no one can do these signs that you do apart from the presence of God.”

e.g.   7³¹Yet many in the crowd believed in him and were saying, “When the Messiah comes, will he do more signs than this man has done?” ³²The Pharisees heard the crowd muttering such things about him, and the chief priests and Pharisees sent temple police to arrest him.

e.g.   20³⁰Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of his disciples, which are not written in this book. ³¹But these are written so that you may come to believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name.

            After much study of the peculiarities of the Gospel of John, usually described as "the Johannine problem" (issues such as non-Synoptic-like character of the narrative and discourse material, the numerous cases of aporias [or unevenness in structure and thought], displacements of text, sequences, and line of thought, and other evidence of editing as well as peculiarities of style, vocabulary, and theology), scholars routinely propose a tripartite development of the community over an extended period of time. Additionally, though with much variation, they manage to incorporate several editions of the Gospel and other Johannine documents into the community's history and theological development.  The following tripartite explanation owes most to the work of U.C. von Wahlde, especially The Earliest Version of John's Gospel: The Gospel of Signs and The Johannine Commandments: 1 John and the Struggle for the Johannine Tradition.

            A Note on Methodology   Scholars have insisted on the peculiarities of the Johannine Gospel for a long time (see above) and have explained them in various ways, whether by means of source theories, suggestions of textual displacement, or more commonly by theories of multiple stages of composition.  Beyond the issues noted above, scholars readily noted many peculiarities of vocabulary as well.  Note the following distribution chart of some common terms:
                                          Mt/     Mk/     Lk/     Jn/     Acts   Paul      1 /      2/      3 Jn  Rev
          "truth"                       1        3         3      25        3        21        9         5         6      -
          "to witness"               1        -         1      33       11         5        6          -         4      4
          "witness"                    -       3         1      14         1          -        6         -          1      9
          "remain/abide"          1        3         3      25        3        13      24        3           -      1
          "to love/agapao"       7        6       11      37        -         17      28        2          1      4
          "world/kosmos"        5        6         5      71        1        36      22        1           -      3
          "Jews/Ioudaios"        5        6         5      70      80        23       -           -           -      -
          "work"                      6        2         2      27        -           -        3         1          1       -
The extensive use of these terms in the Fourth Gospel, usually also in 1 John and even their appearance in the short texts of 2 and 3 John, is significant in underscoring thematic emphases of Johannine literature.  But consideration of such vocabulary and its distribution continues to be the object of much discussion, debate, and certainly disagreement.

            Other terms were noted for their peculiar Johannine distribution and usage: sign (semeion: 17x in John 2-12 and 20:30), Son of Man (as non-apocalyptic), Spirit (24x--especially Spirit of truth and of falsehood, as well as the related term paracletes/advocate--4x and 1 John 2:1), God as Father (pater -118x), light and darkness, kingship (but virtual absence of theme of "kingdom or reign" of God), beloved disciple ("one whom Jesus loved" or "other disciple), command or commandment (entole: 6/6/4/11 + 1 John 14x and 2 John 4x), "believe" (verb and not noun), and idioms such as "walk in" (darkness, truth, commandments) or "abide in" (someone or something).  Each of the above is worth consideration for the light it sheds on Johannine usage.  Surprisingly, the non-historical Gospel of John refers to Jerusalem 12x in chapters 1-12; the place named "Galilee" is well represented in comparison with the other gospels: 16/12/14/17.  Also of interest is the fact that John is even more concerned than the other gospels with the theme or term for "sin" (7/6/11/16--note additionally that "sinner" is used 4x in John 9).  Even more significant is that the term "sin" occurs 16x in 1 John.  I stress the above because there is really an abundance of hints for discerning clues to Johannine history and composition. The problem seemingly is making sense of such abundant data.

            By considering not only the peculiar terms and themes and their frequency but also their distribution, their peculiar meaning in context, and their relation to other peculiar terms it became possible to obtain trustworthy literary criteria to isolate the various editions of the Gospel.  For example, while some pointed to the use of the term Ioudaios (the "Jews") as indicating a second level of editing, more careful analysis showed that the term has several meanings and uses: "Jewish" as a descriptive adjective ("Jewish" feast), "Judaean" (as purely an ethnic designation), and the "Jews" (almost uniformly in a negative, accusatory sense).  Further, by contrasting the last, negative usage (the "Jews") with other, more usual terms for Jews and Jewish authorities ("Pharisees, elders, chief priests"), it  became possible to isolate viable criteria for distinguishing a second edition of the Gospel from an earlier edition which referred to Jewish authorities in Synoptic-like fashion and, with more extended work, also focused on Jesus' miracles, in a positive sense, as "signs" that led to faith in Jesus.  By means of such criteria one is able to distinguish between the various editions of the Gospel and also to relate the stages of the community's development to literary efforts that brought about three editions of John and the production of 1 John as well (but more on that below).

            It should be added that accompanying these linguistic or lexical criteria (use of terms within given narrative or sayings blocks of material), one usually or often find narrative aporias, displacements, unevenness of thematic development, etc.  We noted that there exist clear narrative displacements, e.g., Jesus' movements in John chapter 4 (in Galilee), 5 (stay in Jerusalem), and 6 (movement to the east side of the lake in Galilee--without a movement to Galilee) or Jesus' failure at 14:31c to move on to the garden (chapters 15-17 follow and only in chapter 18:1f does the narrative pick up where it left off).  There are many such clues of editing throughout the Gospel of John.  Such narrative aporias and others of a more thematic type (especially passages that introduce "the Jews" as characters) often accompany the literary and lexical criteria noted earlier and assist the scholar to distinguish the textual layers and to assign them to the proper level of community development, that is, stages 1, 2, or 3 (but again, more on that later).

            Approach    So the remainder of our treatment of Johannine literature will be focused on the three stages of development: 1) the early Jewish-Christian Johannine community and its "sign gospel" (next clalss--see textual references on the verso of the class handout--and given above), 2) the Johannine community and its existence apart from the synagogue, its highly adversarial relation to Judaism and the world generally, its highly developed theology and christology, and certainly its new edition of the Johannine Gospel, and 3) the later Johannine community and its internal problems, i.e., a schism between an orthodox group (responsible for the composition of 1 John and a third edition of the Johannine Gospel) and another group usually referred to as the "secessionists."  We will spend a class day on each of the three stages of ecclesial and literary development.

            2 Peter, like Jude, is devoted to the rebuke of false teachers, but in this case the issue in question is clearly specified.  People who are characterized as "scoffers of the enddays" are mockingly calling into question the christian belief that Jesus will return as judge of the endtime--"where is the promise of his coming?"  they ask.  They then mockingly note that as generations of christians pass away there is no sign of Jesus' return (3:4-5).  This brief letter is meant to reply to this fundamental challenge to early christian eschatology.  It is probably also intended to address the problem of disillusionment among some/many early christians.

            Between brief epistolary and body openings and an even more brief closing (1:1-2 & 3:17-18), the author presents two extended sections devoted to the issue of true and false prophecy (1:12-2:22) and to the issue of the Lord's day (3:1-16).  The first of these addresses the issue of true prophecy (1:12-21) by dwelling on Peter's reliability as eyewitness and bearer of authentic apostolic tradition.  Employing the genre of the farewell discourse the author assumes the persona of Peter ("Simeon Peter"--1:1) and insists that it is his wish to prepare for the period after his death by presenting the readers with a record of his testimony ("that after my departure you may be able at any time to recall these things"- 1:15).  To do this the author appeals to two episodes in the Jesus tradition (compare 1:13-15 with John 21:18-19 and 1:16-18 with Mark 9:2-8 & parallels) where the witness of Peter is crucial to establish a link (Jesus foretells Peter's death and Peter's presence at the transfiguration) between the alleged Petrine writer and the claims which will be made in regard to Jesus' coming.  The apostles have been witnesses to God's testimony concerning Jesus and are now guarantors of prophecy concerning Jesus' return or coming.  It is not the appeal to Greek myths that support christian claims (1:16) but the Holy Spirit speaking through apostolic tradition (1:19 and 21).  A second, lengthy section (2:1-22) addresses the deception and punishment of the false teacher or prophets--this unit consists of a lengthy rewriting of Jude 4-16 (we did some work on this in class--a form of redaction criticism really).

            The second part of the letter, not seen very well in class but better developed here,  focuses more specifically on the problem at hand, namely, the false teachers' denial of the parousia because of its delay (3:4f).  The author appeals first to cosmological arguments (the cosmological character of the beginning and the end of the world involving water and fire, respectively--3:6-7), then to temporal and theological considerations (vv. 8 and 9) to explain the reason for the delay of Jesus' return.  "The Lord's day," after God's benevolent patience has run its course, "will come like a thief" (3:10) and all manner of apocalyptic phenomena will take place, namely, the fiery, noisy passing of the heavens and the earth (vv. 10 & 12).  But in view of the holy conduct of the righteous and in accordance with God's promise, believers "wait for new heavens and a new earth, where righteousness is at home" (v. 13).

            The last point brings us to a final note about the author's strategy.  While it is probably true that the most basic and serious challenge to the Christian community and to the religious person generally, as it is expressed in 2 Peter, is that of denying divine providence ("all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation"--3:4b), it is nonetheless the first, interrogative statement of the false teachers which provides the author and the christian's point of reference for such an eschatological debate: "where is the promise of his coming?" The issues of 2 Peter are christological in formulation for it is Jesus' lordship which is at stake; it is his return which motivates, at least in part, Christian behavior (see the addressees' question and its context in 3:11-13).  As God's divine Son (2 Peter has a high christology) he is the promised one, who now provides assistance and protection, who will return to judge and to lead the righteous to his eternal kingdom (note that Jesus is here called "Lord and Savior"--1:11).  Additionally, since the promise can be traced through the eyewitnesses to the heavenly voice (1:16-18), the addressees can now believe Peter's final words (1:12-15) that the apostolic preaching about his "power and coming" (1:16) is "a very reliable prophetic message" (1:19) that dictates "what sort of persons [believers] ought to be in holy conduct and piety, while awaiting and hastening the coming of God's day" (3:11-12).

            Both the negative and positive aspects of 2 Peter's exhortation require a serious audience.  Whether a stern rebuke of false teachers (threatened with divine judgment--2:1f) or a promise of Jesus' forbearance (time for repentance--3:9), the letter is a plea to the addressees to consider the gift of faith as something "precious" (1:1) and as something that needs to grow as "grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ" (3:18), the one who "received honor and glory from God the Father" (1:17).  This letter provides an excellent example of the christian movement's growth in doctrinal and moral terms and gives us a good case to see how fierce the discussion was over the centuries of doctrinal development. 

          We will next turn our attention to Johannine literature, i.e., the Gospel of John and its kindred documents: 1 John, 2 John, and 3 John.  The study of these documents, particularly the first (and the second to some degree), will reveal a long period of conflict both with Judaism and with other Johannine members.  I will return to this later.

            This brief, all-but-forgotten letter of the NT offers some interesting insights in the development of the early Church.  A pseudonymous (probably) Jewish-christian writer of the Diaspora composes a short polemical tract to defend the Church's tradition against a serious threat by errant teachers within the early communities (see v. 3).  While presenting simple epistolary opening and ending, the document nonetheless follows resolutely a polemical structure whereby in six successive units (introduced by "certain intruders" and fivefold "these" people--see vv. 4, 8, 10, 12, 16 and 19) the teachers are briefly described and then condemned (in the first 4 units) or contrasted with true believers (in the last 2 units).

            The document, by necessity, is considerably negative as it pursues its polemics against the opponents who are said to have perverted God's grace into immoral behavior and unsound doctrine.  These teachers are further described as haughty, slanderous, bombastic, malcontents who have no shame and are simply devoid of the Spirit (see vv. 10, 16, 19).   Equally important for the author's approach to this topic is the repeated warning to and examples of the punishment God will level against them.  The author draws from Jewish tradition (OT and other Jewish works) numerous examples of evil angelic and human creatures who were the object of divine punishment: the desert generation, fallen angels, Sodom, Gomorrah and the surrounding cities (5-7), the devil (9), Cain, Balaam and Korah (11), and the people of Enoch's generation (14-15).  Like these ancient examples of divinely punished evil beings, the opponents or endtime scoffers will receive their just desserts from God.  [I would add an important point here concerning comprehension.  Without some (minimal) knowledge of the figures referred to above (the desert generation, fallen angels, etc), the modern reader can not really reach the "meaning then," that is, the author's intended meaning.  Of course, an annotated bible or a commentary with simple notes and references would go a long way in helping the reader to catch the literary and thematic allusions made by the author of Jude when referring to past example of divine punishment visited on "classic" evil doers.]

            The author however is not only interested in discrediting the evil teachers and in attacking their rampant heresy and immorality, but also in addressing more positively the "beloved" of the community (see vv. 2, 17, 20).  After warning the community via apostolic tradition about these malcontents (vv. 16-17), the author, in a beautiful paraenetic passage, speaks to the faithful members about faith, the Spirit, and love.  Also they are to 'look forward to the mercy of [the] Lord Jesus Christ that leads to eternal life" (21).  Finally, they are to help those who are wavering and even those who have crossed the line of orthodoxy (vv. 20-23).  Indeed, the author prays that God will keep them "from falling" (24).

            So short a document may in effect reflect a sad episode in early christian history, but it also demonstrates not only the fervent battles believers had to wage in the defense of sound doctrine and godly behavior but also the protracted struggles dedicated to winning the minds and hearts of those beloved of God.   At this point we have formulated a sound statement of purpose but we might also ask a very acute question: what is the document's meaning for now or its significance for the modern reader?  We discussed this topic briefly in class.  This is a serious hermeneutical issue and should lead us to reflect on the role these biblical texts play in theology and spiritual reading generally.   Especially, this document and others should lead us to discuss seriously the relation "meaning then" has to "meaning now."

          Next we turn our attention to a related document, 2 Peter.  Please read the document and be aware of its close relationship to Jude; see Jesus, chapter 10.

            This document is an interesting one on several counts.  Careful reading of 1 Peter reveals, on the one hand, the complex world of the post apostolic period and, on the other, a writer that is strikingly original and different from yet comparably creative in comparison to Paul.  The letter presents a challenging discussion of socio-political thought ("religion and society" in modern terms), for it addresses squarely the issue of christians in a non-christian society.  The addressees of the document are particularly vexed by ostracism, maltreatment, and slander on the part of pagan neighbors and the author, using Christ as model of innocent suffering, enjoins them to non-violent resistance or gentle defense (3:15b-16)  as well as innocent suffering, when necessary (3:17).  Christian life in a social context demands holy conduct, reverent fear, duty to society, to others, and especially to fellow believers (1:15-16; 2:11f, 13f), as they face what the author calls a test to the genuineness of their faith (1:7).

            The letter is pseudonymous, written perhaps from Rome to the provinces of Asia Minor (Pontus Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia--see 1:1).  Its context is that of christians undergoing hard times as they adjust to the give and take of life among non-christians.  There is in the letter evidence of ostracism and verbal abuse ("they are "maligned" by pagan neighbors); the author however also hints that some of this abuse might be the result of "mischief-making" on the part of some community members (4:15).  The problem is how to deal with such treatment, or more generally, how to live among abusive neighbors or how to deal with the challenge of being a christian minority in a pagan environment.

            The writer composes a letter of consolation (see 5:12) to help both those who are suffering such abuse and to address more generally the christian's responsibilities vis-a-vis political, social, and community realities.  The letter begins in its first major part (1:3-2:10) by addressing the basics of christian belief: new birth in Christ and God's call of a new people to a life of holiness.  The author then proceeds in the second major section (2:11-4:11) to address the christian's political and social activity and responsibility.  One must honor all God's creatures and even the political structures which are in place to reward the good and punish the evil (2:13-14).  In effect the christians of Asia Minor are admonished: "Honor everyone.  Love the family of believers.  Fear God.  Honor the emperor" (2:17).  It is within this discussion of social duties that the author addresses the major issue of suffering, namely, while discussing the duties of members of the household ("slave" according to the NRSV--2:18-25).  If christians must suffer, let them take Christ as their model.  Let them follow in his footsteps (2:21), for just as he suffered innocently and then received glory, so will christians, if they suffer for Christ's sake (innocently--see 2:19f; 4:13-16), receive glory also when he returns as lord of the endtime (see diagram given in class and in Jesus, p. 380).

            The author's strategy then in addressing the various "suffering" communities of Asia Minor involves the use of a christological pattern both to establish the christian community's status as children of God ransomed by means of Jesus' death and resurrection (see especially chapter 1) and, in a clever way, the use of a variation of this pattern to address the community's suffering in light of their christian status. For the latter, in place of death and resurrection, the author employs the themes of suffering and subsequent glory (see 1:11), i.e., innocent suffering like that of Christ (2:22-25) and promise of glory like that of Christ, "an inheritance that is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven for" the believer.  So both the soteriological function of the Christ-event and its paradigmatic value are stressed by the author to console those who are suffering "for a little while" (1:6; 5:10).

            Beyond this immediate attention to the temporary crisis which confronts the communities of Asia Minor, one finds in 1 Peter a well thought out approach to the believer's political, social, and religious responsibilities.  They are political aliens and religious exiles (see 1:1, 17; 2:11).  In the first case, they have responsibilities which relate to their political status as wards and "citizens" of the Roman empire and its regional civic communities and, in the case of the latter, they have duties vis-a-vis God and their religious communities and in their relationship toward their pagan neighbors.  To address these various duties the author makes use of a complex and beautifully presented "duty or household code" in 2:11-3:12.  This passage is basically designed to provide advice to christians for their daily live in the world they live in, for it addressees the positive attitude they should have toward Roman culture, all the while living like christians among christians and non-christians.  They are to live responsibly in society for they are to "recognize their duty toward" other humans, toward fellow believers, toward the emperor, and toward God (2:17) so that others may glorify God on the day of visitation (2:12).  While they may have to suffer (3:17), let it only be as christians (3:17; 4:16), but they are nonetheless to defend themselves with gentleness (3:15-16).

            This document is positively a breath of fresh air from an early christian who sympathized with fellow sufferers but who nonetheless understood both the christian's goal of being like Christ (in suffering and glory) and of being responsible members of the secular and religious worlds in which they live as aliens and exiles.

            This short document which bears the form of a letter is in reality a brief moral tract.  It is concerned about proper christian behavior, indeed, it is almost exclusively focused on this aspect of religion (1:26-27), which is seen principally as piety and moral activity or the production of good works.

            Important for grasping James' moral vision and advice is the author's anthropological perspective.  James is convinced that the human being is a divided entity (use of dipsychos--or double mind/psychy).  In the words of S. Laws (James, 29-30) one might insist that
                    James' indictment of disunity and inconsistency in human behaviour is key to the
                    author's point of view.  "Man is torn apart by conflicting desires (iv.1), rendering his
                    prayer ineffective (iv.3); and prayer is also rendered ineffective by doubt (i.6ff).  The
                    man who separates hearing and action deceives himself (i.22-24); and to divorce
                    faith and works is to make faith worthless (ii.14-17).
In more general terms James is keenly aware of the dual character of the human creature and its activity.  Thus, abuses of the tongue are sharply contrasted with the praise and prayer which the believer utters with that same tongue (see 1:26; 3:1f vs 3:9f).  Also treatment of others, for James, is a sign of unity or disunity: treatment of the rich and poor (1:9f; 2:1f; 5:1f), the relation of faith and works (1:22f; 2:14f), speech/ prayer and the tongue [above], the causes and remedies of strife (1:2f; 4:1f).  The quest of religion or the goal of proper morality is the overcoming of human divisiveness so as to achieve singleness or integrity ("be whole or complete" --1:4).  God is one but the human creature is divided and easily has doubts and so is ineffective in intention and deed.  Thus James confronts human inconsistency, disunity, and double-mindedness (conflicting desires, 4:1f, partiality, 2:1f, failure to guard the tongue, 3:1, hearer and not doer of the word, 2:14f) at every level of behavior and action.  For a discussion of the author's treatment of the themes of rich and poor, of use and abuse of the tongue, and of faith and works, see Jesus, pp. 378-79.

            For James morality, indeed religion, is the quest for christian maturity, for it calls for faith and endurance in the midst of the trials of life that the believer "may be mature and complete, lacking in nothing"  (1:3-4).  The letter of James then is in reality a moral sermon whose focus is on the good works that should flow from an active, mature faith, a faith that addresses God in unwavering prayer (1:5-8) and "fulfills the royal law according to scripture: 'you shall love your neighbor as yourself'" (2:8).  Despite its pessimistic view of the human creature, the letter of James is a valiant call for piety, moral activity, and pure hearts in God's presence.

          The above is a short discussion but it should not give the impression that this brief moral tract should not be read and should not be most inspiring--if challenging!

            Introductory Comments.  This is a unique, well-written text whose genre is best described as non-descript.  It is not a letter but could be listed as a tract or sermon, perhaps a sermon that was eventually edited (see the postscript--13:22-25) for more general reading.  The document has an original perspective on a number of theological issues, not the least of which are its christology, ecclesiology, and spirituality.  From examining this unique perspective we are probably to conclude that the author is a Jewish Christian, with some Platonic background, who writes with Gentile Christians in view (see 3:12).  Finally, we might conclude, from a brief look at the document, that it is written by an anonymous author, not by Paul; that it is a tract or homily not a letter; and that its audience, though traditionally identified as "Hebrews," is also unknown (despite the reference in 13:24b to "those from Italy").

            Why written?  Basically the document is written in response to the difficulties which the presumed readers are experiencing.  These difficulties might best be described as factually serious since some of the community members are "enduring a hard struggle with sufferings," sufferings which are further qualified as public exposure and persecution, i.e., public maltreatment or ostracism, as imprisonment and torture, as plundering or confiscation of property (see 10:32-34; also 13:3).  As a result of these seemingly severe problems some/many are falling away from their Christian commitment, that is, there is a danger of apostasy (6:4f; 10:26f; 12:16f).  So the author insists that believers not be "among those who shrink back and so are lost, but among those who have faith and so are saved" (10:39).  Note that one could speak here of a severe strategy in the context of a serious situation (see discussion in Jesus, 371-72).

            A Few Comments.  So a number of points will be made concerning paraenesis, christology (and eschatology) as strategy, and peculiarities of the author's thought (high christology, Jesus as eternal high priest and intercessor, as sacrifice and savior, etc); also other comments are forthcoming.

            a) The letter is first of all one of encouragement or exhortation (13:22).  Believers are to see their suffering as discipline from a loving Father (12:3f).  So the readers are advised to hold fast to their commitment, to remain true to their calling and to persist in confessing Jesus as Lord.  They are encouraged to obedience to and approach of the suffering Son who himself is characterized by his obedience to God's will.

            b) The author focuses on christology or a given image of Jesus as strategy to encourage the document's readers.  Christ, the pre-existent son (1:1-4), as eternal high priest, has offered his own life as perfect redemptive sacrifice (9:26-28; 10:14).  He is the weak, sympathetic human, yet sinless (4:15), the one made perfect through suffering (2:10; 5:9). He acted as high priest while on earth and is now enthroned at God's right hand, where he now intercedes for believers.  Through his blood he guarantees a better covenant and saves all who approach God through him.  Finally, he will return as savior and will lead all to rest in the eternal city.

            c) Especially he is the eternal high priest who, as a sympathetic brother and Son of God, intercedes with God for believers in their time of need and trouble. He who was higher than the angels has become lower than they for the sake of those who believe, but is now at God's right hand.  So the author advises the troubled readers: "let us therefore approach the throne of grace with boldness, so that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need" (4:16).

            d) Many other features of this author's thought could be noted here (Platonic features, Jewish themes, focus on the great personages of Jewish history as witnesses to faith, interest in Melchizedek, Moses and other Jewish figures), but in essence this text is written to address the situation described in the letter and to encourage believers to turn to Christ in their time of need.  In Christ the high priest then, believers are to find consolation and, in anticipation, are able to share in the reality of the heavenly city during their time as pilgrims on earth (see 13:12-15).